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In  the  day  of  Pentecost  there  were  dwelling  in  Jerusalem 
"  men  from  every  nation  under  heaven."  To-day,  in  David 
street  there  mingle  Turk,  Arab,  Kurd,  Syrian,  Aimenian, 
Persian,  and  the  European  and  American 


THE  NEAR  EAST: 

CROSSROADS  OF  THE  WORLD 

BY 

WILLIAM   H.   HALL 

Principal  of  the  Preparatory  Department  of  the  Syrian  Protestant 

College,   Beirut,    Syria;    Editor  of  volume  of  reports    for 

The  American  Committee  of  Relief  in  the  Near  East, 

entitled  "Reconstruction  in  Turkey";    Author    of 

magazine  articles  on  the  Near  East  in  National 

Geographic  Magazine  and  Asia 


WITH  A  FINAL  CHAPTER 

BY  JAMES  L.  BARTON 

Foreign   Secretary    to   the  American 

Board  of  Missions  and  Director  of  the 

late    Commission   of   the    Near    East 

Relief  to  Turkey  and  the  Caucasus 


EDUCATIONAL   DEPARTMENT 

THE    BOARD   OF   FOREIGN    MISSIONS 

OF  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  IN  THE  U.  S.  A. 

156    FIFTH   AVENUE,  NEW   YORK   CITY 


COPYRIGHT.  1920.  BY 

THE  INTERCHURCH  WORLD  MOVEMENT 
OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


EDITOR'S  NOTE 

The  first  seven  chapters  of  this  book  were  written 
by  Professor  Hall  just  before  his  return  last  summer 
to  Beirut,  Syria.  Since  then,  events  in  the  Near  East 
have  crowded  hard  one  upon  the  other,  some  of  them 
carrying  political  significance.  Commissions  of  sur- 
vey and  inspection  have  pushed  their  inquiries  into  all 
quarters  of  the  domain. 

The  editors  of  this  book  have,  therefore,  counted  it 
a  stroke  of  good  fortune  that,  upon  his  return  in 
December  from  six  months'  travel  in  the  Near  East  as 
director  general  of  the  Near  East  Relief,  Dr.  James 
L.  Barton  should  have  consented  to  write  a  final  chap- 
ter in  the  light  of  more  recent  events  and  of  his  very 
extended  travels. 

In  perfect  fairness  to  the  author  of  the  book  it 
should  be  said  further  that  such  editorial  changes  as 
have  been  made  in  Professor  Hall's  manuscript,  and 
they  have  been  minor,  have  been  made  of  necessity 
without  conference  with  him,  owing  to  the  six  thou- 
sand miles  of  water  intervening. 


2041755 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Foreword ix 

I    The  World  War  in  the  Near  East  ...  3 

II    The  Mingling  of  Many  Nations     ...  29 

III  Old  Religions  in  the  New  Day  61 

IV  Home  Life  and  Industries      ....  87 
V    A  Century  of  Missions 115 

VI     Western  Influence  on  Eastern  Education    .  141 

VII    The  World's  Crossroads 171 

VIII     Shall  the  Land  Be  Healed?  ....  195 

Bibliography 222 

Index  ......       .       .       .       .  226 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Street  scene  in  Jerusalem Frontispiece 

Emir  Feisal 14 

Wailing  place  of  the  Jews 46 

Arab  camp  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Sinai      .......  78 

Irrigation  problems  in  Mesopotamia 102 

Native  doctors  trained  by  missionaries 126 

Syrian  Protestant  College  at  Beirut 158 

MAPS 

Map  of  the  Near  East End  Papers 

Map  showing  Aleppo  as  the  world's  crossroads     .      .      .     174 


FOREWORD 

The  theme  of  this  book  is :  what  the  war  has  brought 
to  the  Near  East;  what  it  has  brought  to  political  life 
through  the  break-up  of  old,  outside,  foreign  domina- 
tions and  the  release  of  inborn  national  longings;  what 
it  has  brought  in  racial  relationships,  in  social  and  in- 
dustrial organization,  and  in  religious  development; 
what  it  has  brought  to  education  and  to  the  work  of 
Christian  missions.  Each  of  the  subjects  demands  a 
look  backward  at  what  has  been  and  a  look  forward 
to  the  promise  of  the  new  day,  and  then  an  apprecia- 
tion of  the  importance  of  this  region  in  world  rela- 
tions, with  an  insistence  that  there  must  be  a  just  and 
Christian  solution  of  the  questions  of  the  Near  East. 

The  point  of  view  of  the  author  is  that  of  one  who 
has  resided  at  the  foot  of  the  Lebanon  Mountains  for 
nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century.  He  labors  under  the 
disadvantage,  therefore,  of  seeing  all  things  through 
his  Syrian  glasses.  He  has  traveled,  however,  through 
Egypt  and  Asia  Minor  although  never  in  Persia.  To 
be  frank,  he  finds  it  easier  to  draw  an  illustration  or 
make  a  historical  reference  with  Syria  in  mind  rather 
than  with  Egypt  or  Persia.  But  when  a  man  has 
seen  the  life  of  one  of  these  Eastern  lands  and  has 
learned  its  social  usages,  religious  customs,  and  man- 

ix 


x  FOREWORD 

ner  of  thinking,  he  knows  the  characteristics  of  them 
all,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  differences  in  local 
color.  To  those  who  have  resided  in  any  one  of  the 
various  countries  the  picture  will  be  blurred,  dispro- 
portioned,  and  possibly  indistinct.  But  they  are  too 
near  the  screen.  Those  who  are  looking  from  far- 
ther away  are  better  able  to  get  the  perspective,  and 
the  color  blendings  of  the  picture  will  not  seem  so  dis- 
torted. It  is  for  the  latter  that  the  drawing  has  been 
made. 

The  term  "  Near  East  "  as  used  in  this  book  includes 
Egypt,  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  Mesopotamia,  and  Persia.  It 
did  not  seem  feasible  to  include  the  Balkans  within  the 
scope  of  this  study,  and  Arabia  is  barely  touched. 
But  who  knows  Arabia?  It  is  still  a  terra  incognita, 
waiting  as  it  has  waited  throughout  untold  centuries 
for  the  coming  of  a  new  day  that  has  yet  to  dawn 
on  that  land  of  desert  plains,  fertile  valleys,  and  ele- 
mental races. 

The  question  of  the  Near  East  has  never  been  absent 
from  the  world  forum.  It  has  never  been  settled  con- 
clusively because  it  has  never  been  settled  right.  It 
never  will  be  settled  until  statesmen  and  churchmen 
are  willing  to  apply  to  this  region  of  world  interest 
the  principle  of  the  Hebrew  Prophet,  "  Let  justice  roll 
down  as  waters  and  righteousness  as  a  mighty  stream." 

WILLIAM  H.  HALL. 

Beirut,  Syria, 
1920. 


I 

THE  WORLD  WAR  IN  THE  NEAR  EAST 


CHAPTER  ONE 

THE   WORLD   WAR   IN   THE   NEAR   EAST 

the  tenth  of  December,  1917,  the  gates  of 
Jerusalem  were  thrown  open,  and  the  British 
forces  entered  the  Holy  City.  Probably  no  single 
event  in  all  the  great  war  so  laid  hold  on  the  imagina- 
tion of  the  world  as  this  victorious  culmination  of  a 
desperate  campaign  along  the  ancient  desert  roads 
leading  into  Egypt.  Just  four  centuries  before,  a 
Turkish  army,  sweeping  down  in  full  tide  of  conquer- 
ing power  from  the  north,  had  taken  the  city  from 
its  Arab  defenders.  Rushing  on  like  a  mighty  flood, 
the  same  army  had  conquered  Egypt,  overthrown  the 
power  of  the  Mamelukes,  assumed  the  authority  and 
title  of  the  Moslem  Caliphate,  and  brought  the  north 
African  states  under  Turkish  sway. 

A  Center  of  'Age-Long  Conflict 

Only  for  one  brief  period  since  the  year  637,  when 
the  city  was  first  won  by  a  Moslem  conqueror,  Caliph 
Omar,  had  it  come  under  the  control  of  Christians. 

3 


4  THE  NEAR  EAST 

This  was  in  1098,  when  the  Crusaders,  under  Godfrey 
of  Bouillon,  captured  the  city  after  a  bitter  siege. 
The  victory  was  followed  by  such  a  scene  of  carnage 
and  massacre  as  has  forever  disgraced  the  name  of 
"  Crusade." 

What  a  contrast  to  the  destruction  and  violence  that 
had  been  visited  upon  Jerusalem  by  victor  after  victor 
in  its  long  history,  was  the  triumphal  entry  of  General 
Allenby  on  that  December  morning  in  1917.  Without 
arms  or  military  parade  he  passed  through  the  Jaffa 
Gate  on  foot,  not  as  a  conqueror  "  in  the  sign  of  the 
Cross,"  but  as  a  sincere,  devout  disciple,  coming  as  a 
man  to  his  brother  to  bring  "  liberty  to  the  captives, 
the  opening  of  the  prison  to  them  that  are  bound, 
...  to  appoint  unto  them  that  mourn  in  Zion,  to 
give  unto  them  a  garland  for  ashes."  x 

There  followed  Allenby  into  the  city  an  army  gath- 
ered from  all  the  world.  Then,  after  months  of 
careful  preparation,  with  Jerusalem  as  a  base,  there 
came  the  dashing  campaign  in  northern  Palestine  and 
Syria  which  marked  the  collapse  of  Turkey  as  an  effec- 
tive ally  of  the  Central  Powers.  Almost  the  entire 
Turkish  army  was  routed  and  captured.  The  world 
read  with  amazed  interest  of  the  exploits,  not  only  of 
troops  from  all  races  in  the  British  Isles,  but  of  Aus- 
tralians, New  Zealanders,  French,  Italians,  Egyptians, 
Armenians,  Sudanese,  Sikhs,  Gurkhas,  Pathans,  Chris- 
tian Raratongans,  West  Indians, — a  veritable  army  of 
the  nations.  And  it  did  not  escape  the  comment  of  the 

1  Isaias  61 :  i,  3. 


THE  WORLD  WAR  IN  THE  NEAR  EAST  5 

world  that  among  the  victorious  troops  was  a  Jewish 
legion.  Jerusalem  and  all  the  suffering  provinces  to 
the  north  vied  with  one  another  in  welcoming  their 
deliverers  from  the  oppression  of  Ottoman  rule. 

The  Collapse  of  Turkish  Power 

When  young  King  David  led  his  army  against  the 
stronghold  of  Zion  to  take  it  from  the  Jebusites,  they 
taunted  him  with  the  saying,  "  Except  thou  take  away 
the  blind  and  the  lame,  thou  shalt  not  come  in  hither; 
thinking  David  cannot  come  in  hither."  x  But  the 
ingenuity  of  that  gifted  leader  devised  a  way  to  over- 
come even  the  defenses  of  Zion.  In  similar  phrase 
it  was  commonly  said  in  these  days,  "  Until  the  waters 
of  the  Nile  flow  into  Jerusalem,  the  city  cannot  be 
taken  from  the  Turks."  Considering  the  miles  of 
intervening  desert  this  was  a  proverbial  way  of  stat- 
ing the  impossible. 

It  was  the  overcoming  of  such  difficulties  as  this 
that  made  General  Allenby's  campaign  one  of  the 
features  of  the  war.  He  built  a  transport  railway 
from  Egypt  to  Syria.  He  brought  a  pipe-line  of  Nile 
water  across  the  desert.  By  laying  down  heavy  wire- 
mesh  netting  over  the  desert  lands,  he  quickly  con- 
structed a  wonderful  highway  for  automobiles.  He 
defeated  a  carefully  chosen,  strongly  intrenched  Turk- 
ish army  aided  by  German  and  Austrian  artillery  and 
engineers  and  directed  by  a  German  field  marshal. 

1  2  Samuel  5,  6. 


6  THE  NEAR  EAST 

He  delivered  a  city  and  freed  a  land  toward  which  all 
Christendom  has  turned  its  eyes  with  love  and  longing 
for  nearly  two  thousand  years.  He  opened  the  way 
for  the  reestablishment  of  the  Jewish  people  in  their 
ancient  home,  and  he  saved  from  destruction  one  of 
the  fairest  provinces  known  to  history.  In  conjunc- 
tion with  the  campaign  in  Mesopotamia,  General 
Allenby  struck  the  death  blow  to  the  Turkish  Empire 
and  to  German  dreams  in  the  East. 

For  more  than  a  hundred  years  Great  Britain  had 
been  the  main  support  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  In 
the  days  of  the  Crimea  and  again  in  1878,  it  was  the 
British  who  were  chiefly  instrumental  in  turning  aside 
the  Russian  forces  from  control  of  the  Bosphorus. 
When  Ibrahim  Pasha  of  Egypt  wrested  Syria  from 
the  Turkish  grasp,  it  was  Britain  that  caused  Egypt  to 
relinquish  her  prize.  When  the  great  Napoleon  in- 
vaded the  East,  it  was  the  British  Nelson  who 
destroyed  his  fleet  and  cut  off  supplies  and  retreat. 
It  was  a  strange  turn  of  history,  therefore,  which 
brought  about  a  situation  that  led  to  the  overthrow 
of  the  Turkish  military  power  by  an  army  composed 
almost  entirely  of  units  drawn  from  the  British 
Empire. 

Egypt  in  the  War  Strategy 

The  new  postage  stamps  issued  for  Syria  and 
Palestine  are  marked  E.  E.  F.,  "  Egyptian  Expedi- 
tionary Forces."  They  are  printed  in  Arabic  and 
valued  in  Egyptian  piastres.  This  is  a  graphic  illus- 


THE  WORLD  WAR  IN  THE  NEAR  EAST  7 

tration  of  the  part  which  Egypt  played  in  the  war  in 
the  Near  East. 

One  of  the  first  movements  of  the  Turkish  troops 
was  an  expedition  against  the  Suez  Canal  to  block  the 
road  to  India  and,  if  possible,  to  sow  seeds  of  dissen- 
sion in  Egypt  This  was  instigated  by  Germany  and 
was  one  of  her  strategic  movements.  When  D'jemal 
Pasha  set  out  from  Constantinople  as  commander  of 
this  expedition  to  the  south,  he  was  given  a  great 
ovation  as  the  one  who  should  redeem  for  Turkey 
her  lost  province  of  the  Nile.1  Turkish  forces  did 
actually  cross  the  desert  and  reach  the  Canal,  but  with 
terrible  suffering  and  loss.  This  fact,  however,  dem- 
onstrated that  the  desert  was  riot  an  insuperable  bar- 
rier, and  that  the  defense  of  the  Canal  must  be  moved 
farther  to  the  north.  Then  began  the  British  advance 
into  Palestine. 

Egypt  was  made  a  military  base  from  the  very  be- 
ginning of  the  war.  Troops  were  brought  there  for 
training.  The  Dardanelles  expedition  was  largely 
fitted  out  from  Egypt,  and  the  whole  of  the  Palestine 
campaign  was  supported  from  this  Egyptian  base. 
Thousands  of  Egyptian  laborers  were  employed  in  the 
construction  of  the  railway,  highway,  and  water-pipe 
line  into  Palestine. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war  Great  Britain  an- 
nounced a  formal  protectorate  over  Egypt,  dethroned 
the  Khedive,  who  was  known  to  be  favorable  to 
Turkey,  and  appointed  his  uncle,  Hussein,  in  his 

1  Ambassador  Morgenthau's  Story,  Chapter  XV. 


8  THE  NEAR  EAST 

place.  Thus  Egypt  became  an  integral  part  of  the 
British  Empire  and  throughout  the  war  did  her  share 
in  bringing  about  victory. 

The  Development  of  Modern  Egypt 

The  development  of  Egypt  in  recent  years  is  one 
of  the  fascinating  stories  of  national  progress.  To 
the  popular  mind  the  land  of  Egypt  is  of  interest 
chiefly  because  of  the  Pyramids,  the  Sphinx,  and  the 
slavery  of  the  Hebrew  people.  It  is  a  land  of  an- 
tiquity, recorded  in  hieroglyphics  on  granite  temples 
and  obelisks.  That  there  is  a  modern  Egypt  with  its 
acute  problems  which  tax  the  best  statesmanship  of 
Europe;  that  there  is  a  Nile  valley  where  marvels  of 
engineering  skill  have  been  worked  out;  that  there 
are  great  cotton  fields  ranking  among  the  very  first  in 
the  world,  and  corn  lands  which  rival  those  of  our 
Mississippi  valley — of  these  facts  very  few  Americans 
are  aware.  Yet  Egypt,  commanding  the  route  to  India 
and  Australia,  lies  at  the  center  of  the  British  Empire 
and  is,  perhaps,  the  very  keystone  which  keeps  the  im- 
perial arch  from  falling. 

With  the  improvements  in  the  country,  with  com- 
mercial prosperity,  and  an  increase  in  the  number  of 
schools  and  higher  institutions  of  learning,  there  has 
grown  up  a  large  group  of  men  of  independent 
thought  and  of  national  aspirations.  While  they  have 
enjoyed  the  prosperity  brought  by  British  administra- 
tion and  have  realized  that  the  country  has  probably 


THE  WORLD  WAR  IN  THE  NEAR  EAST  9 

been  in  much  better  industrial  and  commercial  condi- 
tion than  it  would,  had  it  remained  under  purely 
Egyptian  control,  still  they  have  wished  to  know  why 
the  British  forces  have  not  been  withdrawn  according 
to  promise.  They  have  argued  that,  after  a  whole 
generation  of  leadership  and  instruction,  they  are 
abundantly  able  to  manage  their  own  affairs. 

From  time  to  time  British  statesmen  have  made  it 
clear,  however,  that  they  do  not  intend  to  withdraw 
from  the  country.  When  Theodore  Roosevelt  visited 
Egypt,  and  again  on  his  visit  to  England,  he  told  the 
British  plainly  that  "  they  should  either  rule  Egypt  or 
get  out."  The  British  decided  to  rule. 

The  significance  and  extent  of  the  nationalistic 
movements  which  have  developed  in  opposition  to  this 
policy  in  the  period  following  the  war  are  referred 
to  in  another  chapter. 

Mesopotamia  and  the  Persian  Frontier 

Just  before  the  war  the  British  Government  gained 
a  large  interest  in  the  Anglo-Persian  Oil  Company. 
This  was  located  north  from  the  head  of  the  Persian 
Gulf,  and  near  the  summer  residence  of  the  old 
Persian  monarchs — in  the  city  of  Shushan  of  Bible 
times.  The  oil  of  these  wells  was  brought  in  a  pipe- 
line along  the  Persian  border  to  the  Gulf,  and  the 
chiefs  of  the  Bakhtiyari  were  paid  to  protect  it.  With 
the  closing  of  the  Dardanelles  and  the  consequent  loss 
of  access  to  the  oil  supplies  of  Roumania  and  Russia, 


10  THE  NEAR  EAST 

these  Persian  wells  became  of  the  utmost  importance 
to  Great  Britain.  Consequently,  under  the  direction 
of  the  Government  of  India,  a  British  force  was  sent 
to  occupy  Basra  and  to  protect  the  Persian  frontier. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  war  Persia  was  filled 
with  German  and  Turkish  agents  who  were  using 
every  endeavor  to  persuade  the  people  to  take  sides 
with  the  Central  Powers.  By  arousing  their  Moslem 
coreligionists  and  by  appealing  to  Persian  antagonism 
to  Russia  and  England,  they  sought  to  indirectly 
inflame  India.  Little  is  yet  reported  of  the  terrible 
contest  that  raged  in  Persia  during  these  months,  or 
of  the  influence  of  America  in  holding  that  country 
neutral.  It  was  not  so  much  America's  direct  diplo- 
matic efforts,  as  the  spirit  of  gratitude,  that  finally 
won:  Persia's  memory  of  what  Shuster  had  tried  to 
do  for  her  before  the  war,  and,  through  the  Near 
East  Relief,  America's  gift  of  bread  to  Persia's  starv- 
ing thousands  was  the  potent  factor. 

The  tragic  failure  of  the  Allies  to  force  a  passage 
of  the  Dardanelles  was  accompanied  by  a  Turkish 
victory  below  Baghdad  at  Kut-el-Amara.  These  two 
victories  gave  the  Allied  cause  in  the  Near  East  a 
terrible  blow.  The  people  who  had  hoped  so  much 
began  to  feel  that  Great  Britain  was  not  invincible. 
Subject  races  in  Turkey  almost  despaired ;  and  the  rul- 
ing Turks  became  at  once  more  overbearing  than  ever. 

Then  came  General  Maude  and  a  new  order  of 
things  for  Mesopotamia.  After  careful  preparation, 
the  British  rapidly  advanced,  capturing  Baghdad,  and 


THE  WORLD  WAR  IN  THE  NEAR  EAST  11 

sweeping  the  Turkish  armies  before  them  as  far  as 
Mosul.  At  this  critical  time  a  great  misfortune  befel 
them  in  the  loss  of  their  gifted  leader,  General  Maude, 
who  died  from  cholera.  But  the  greater  part  of 
Mesopotamia  had  been  won,  and  the  campaign  was 
ably  carried  on  to  a  victorious  conclusion  by  General 
Marshall.  At  once  work  was  begun  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  wonderful  agricultural  resources  of  these 
fertile  plains.  Old  irrigation  canals  were  cleaned  out, 
swamps  were  drained,  and  it  is  said  that  more  grain 
was  produced  in  the  year  following  than  in  any 
period  since  the  days  of  the  Caliphate  of  Baghdad. 

The  development  of  these  ancient  river  valleys  has 
been  of  untold  blessing  to  the  people  of  this  region 
and  to  thousands  of  refugees.  This  natural  garden 
spot  of  the  world,  which  under  Turkish  neglect  had 
become  a  desert,  is  once  more  producing  food  and 
cotton.  The  possibilities  of  the  great  district  cannot 
be  over-estimated.  It  has  the  fertility  of  Egypt  with 
five  times  the  area.  The  victories  of  General  Maude 
and  his  British  and  Indian  troops  have  restored  to 
civilization  this  ancient  world  granary. 

While  one  Turkish  army  was  being  defeated  in  the 
south,  another  was  operating  to  the  northeast  towards 
Persia  and  the  Caucasus.  At  an  earlier  period  of  the 
war  a  Russian  army  advanced  from  the  Caucasus  well 
beyond  the  boundaries  of  eastern  Turkey,  but  later  it 
was  forced  to  withdraw.  With  the  weakening  of 
Russian  military  power,  Turkish  troops  not  only 
crossed  into  the  Russian  Caucasus,  but  also  over  the 


12  THE  NEAR  EAST 

boundaries  into  Persia.  Again  and  again  the  Turkish 
army  was  sent  forward,  sometimes  drawing  perilously 
near  the  goal  of  the  great  pipe-line  from  the  Caspian 
oil-fields,  only  to  be  driven  off  again.  Then  came  the 
complete  collapse  of  Russia,  and  all  the  gain  to  the 
Allies  in  the  northeast  was  lost.  Turks  and  Germans 
moved  on;  rich  copper  deposits  and  oil-wells  were 
within  their  grasp. 

Small  forces  of  British  troops  were  sent  through 
western  Persia  to  protect  the  crowds  of  refugees  flee- 
ing from  the  wild  looting  and  massacre  being  carried 
on  by  the  Kurds.  One  of  the  most  romantic  adven- 
tures of  the  war  was  the  perilous  march  of  a  small 
body  of  British  troops  from  the  Baghdad  area  across 
Persia  to  the  Caspian,  and  their  voyage  on  to  Baku 
where  they  tried  to  strengthen  the  resistance  of 
Armenian  troops  to  the  Turkish  advance. 

Persia  the  Neutral 

Weakened  by  inefficiency  and  corruption  within  and 
checked  in  her  development  by  the  jealousies  of  pow- 
erful neighbors  without,  Persia  had  practically  ceased 
to  exist  as  an  independent  state  even  before  the  out- 
break of  the  great  war.  If  the  country  was  lagging 
then,  her  condition  following  the  war  is  pitiable.  Such 
a  remnant  of  government  as  existed  at  the  beginning 
of  hostilities  declared  a  formal  neutrality;  yet  all  of 
western  Persia  soon  became  a  battlefield.  Slaughter 
and  famine  visited  their  horrors  upon  her  as  well  as 


THE  WORLD  WAR  IN  THE  NEAR  EAST  13 

upon  her  neighbors  who  entered  definitely  into  the 
strife. 

The  recent  history  of  Persia  is  a  record  of  helpless 
drifting  toward  loss  of  sovereignty  and  national  vigor. 
There  was  a  moment  of  hope  when,  in  1905,  a  reform 
movement  drew  to  it  the  attention  of  the  outside 
world.  In  protest  against  the  tyrannical  methods  of 
the  Shah,  fifteen  thousand  of  the  leading  citizens  of 
Teheran  left  the  city  and  refused  to  return  unless  a 
constitution  were  granted.  In  1906  the  Shah  was  re- 
ported dethroned  and  a  parliament  established.  A 
period  of  turmoil  followed,  and  anarchy  prevailed 
throughout  the  country.  At  last  the  aid  of  America 
was  sought  by  the  distracted  leaders.  On  the  advice 
of  President  Taft,  William  M.  Shuster  was  appointed 
to  reorganize  the  financial  and  other  departments  of 
government. 

It  soon  became  apparent,  however,  that  powerful 
interests  from  without  had  assumed  direction  of  Per- 
sia's affairs.  In  1907  Russia  and  Great  Britain  signed 
a  pact  for  the  peace  of  Persia  directly  against  the 
protestations  of  the  Persian  parliament.  As  a  result 
of  these  diplomatic  exchanges  two  spheres  of  influ- 
ence were  marked  out  in  Persia,  the  northern  Russian 
and  the  southern  British.  These  governments  pro- 
ceeded to  force  the  resignation  of  Mr.  Shuster  and 
later  that  of  his  Belgian  successor,  and  Persia  became 
virtually  a  protectorate  under  their  control. 

The  outbreak  of  the  war  found  this  country  in  a 
backward  condition  and  little  affected  by  the  progres- 


14  THE  NEAR  EAST 

sive  movements  operating  in  other  Oriental  lands.  In 
spite  of  the  fact  that  its  territory  is  nearly  half  as 
large  again  as  that  of  all  of  the  states  on  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  from  Maine  to  Florida,  and  that  its  popula- 
tion is  about  ten  million,  Persia  has  only  six  miles  of 
railway,  apart  from  a  Russian  railway  connection  with 
Tabriz;  and  there  are  only  two  hundred  post-offices 
in  the  land. 

Garrisons  of  Russian  troops  in  the  north  maintained 
order,  but  when  they  were  forced  to  withdraw  for  a 
time,  early  in  the  war,  massacres  broke  out  in  the  west. 
The  Kurds  from  the  Turkish  border  fell  upon  the 
defenseless  Christians  of  Urumia,  and  thousands  of 
those  who  escaped  lived  for  months  under  the  protec- 
tion of  the  American  flag  in  the  mission  compound. 
Later  the  Russians  returned,  and  the  disturbances  were 
quieted ;  but  on  the  final  evacuation  by  the  demoralized 
Russian  army,  both  Turks  and  Kurds  advanced  across 
the  border.  Tabriz  was  occupied,  the  American  mis- 
sion buildings  plundered,  and  the  American  mission- 
aries were  kept  for  weeks  in  prison.  For  four  years 
western  Persia  has  been  a  scene  of  carnage  and  out- 
rage committed  by  roving  bands  and  by  regular  troops. 
The  nation  emerges  from  the  war  period  with  needs 
as  desperate  as  those  found  in  lands  that  were  among 
the  formal  belligerents. 

The  Kingdom  of  the  Hedjaz 

Another  phase  of  the  war  development  in  the  Near 
East  remains  to  be  noted.  The  Arabs  of  Arabia  have 


Hams  &  E-jumg 

One  of  the  most  picturesque  characters  at  the  Peace  Confer- 
ence in  Paris  was  Prince  Feisal,  son  of  the  king  of  the  Hedjaz. 
Syria  has  recently  declared  for  independence  and  for  Feisal  as 
King 


THE  WORLD  WAR  IN  THE  NEAR  EAST  15 

never  been  satisfied  with  a  Turkish  Caliph.  They  have 
looked  upon  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  as  a  usurper  of 
religious  authority  which  naturally  belongs  to  the  Arab 
people  among  whom  Mohammed  himself  lived.  All 
of  the  early  Caliphs  were  either  relatives  or  friends 
of  Mohammed  and  were  pure  Arabs.  Turkey,  how- 
ever, has  never  had  more  than  a  nominal  political 
control  over  the  various  cities  and  districts  of  Arabia, 
and  it  was  for  the  purpose  of  strengthening  this  hold 
that  she  built  the  railway  from  Damascus  to  Medina. 
The  funds  for  the  construction  of  this  railway  were 
gathered  from  pilgrims  to  the  Holy  Shrines,  and  it 
was  advertised  as  being  constructed  to  aid  the  pil- 
grimages to  Mecca.  So,  under  cover  of  religion,  the 
Turkish  Government  was  able  to  build  what  was  really 
a  military  road;  but  even  this  has  not  materially 
strengthened  her  control  in  Arabia. 

At  the  outbreak  of  war  the  Sherif  of  Mecca,  one 
of  the  highest  of  Mohammedan  officials,  a  man  of  pure 
Arab  blood  and  belonging  to  the  family  which  has 
religious  control  of  the  Shrine  at  Mecca,  proclaimed 
his  independence  of  Turkey  and  established,  under 
English  patronage,  "  The  Kingdom  of  the  Hedjaz." 
Numerous  Arab  tribes  gathered  around  him  and  his 
dashing  son  Emir  Feisal,  who  heads  the  developing 
nationalistic  movement  among  the  Arabs  in  Syria. 
Operating  with  forces  from  Egypt,  they  contributed 
valuable  assistance  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Turkish 
army. 

The  rallying  of  these  wild  desert  tribes  brought 


16  THE  NEAR  EAST 

to  the  notice  of  the  world  one  of  the  romantic  figures 
of  the  war.  A  shrinking,  soft-spoken  young  English- 
man, Thomas  Lawrence,  who  had  been  living  among 
the  desert  Arabs  for  years  studying  archaeology,  had 
so  completely  adapted  himself  to  their  life  and  had 
so  won  their  confidence  that  he  was  able  to  unite  them 
and  lead  them  against  the  Turks.  The  "  matinee  idol 
of  Arabia,"  who  seemed  equally  at  home  in  an  aero- 
plane flying  abashed  from  public  honors  tendered  him 
in  Cairo,  or  upon  a  swift  camel  leading  an  attack  of 
Bedouin  tribesmen,  will  remain  one  of  the  most  pic- 
turesque heroes  of  modern  history.1 

It  is  doubtful  whether  the  new  government  which 
the  Arabs  are  forming  is  founded  upon  principles 
which  are  sufficiently  progressive  to  give  hope  for 
stability  and  growth.  But  it  is  interesting  to  speculate 
as  to  the  effect  of  the  rise  of  a  strong  Mohammedan, 
Arab  kingdom  adjacent  to  Syria  and  Africa,  espe- 
cially with  Egypt  restored  to  political  vitality. 


In  order  to  understand  the  causes  which  involved 
in  this  conflict  nation  after  nation  and  tribe  after 
tribe  of  the  Near  East,  it  is  necessary  to  know  the 
story  of  Turkey's  entrance  into  the  war. 

When  the  Turkish  Government  permitted  the  two 
German  cruisers,  the  Goeben  and  the  Breslau,  to  pass 
through  the  Dardanelles,  she  virtually  declared  her 

1  See  Asia  for  September  and  October,   1919. 


THE  WORLD  WAR  IN  THE  NEAR  EAST  17 

alliance  with  Germany.  While  the  Turkish  minister 
of  marine  sat  in  his  club  playing  cards,  a  German 
admiral  was  sending  Turkish  torpedo  boats  to  sink 
a  Russian  ship  and  bombard  a  Russian  port  in  the 
Black  Sea.1  This  meant  that  Turkey  had  involved 
herself  in  the  war,  against  the  preference  of  the  ma- 
jority of  her  people  and  contrary  to  the  protests  of 
many  of  her  cabinet  ministers  and  her  Grand  Vizier. 
Abundant  warnings  had  been  'given  that  if  she  entered 
on  such  a  course,  she  signed  her  own  death  sentence 
and  must  expect  no  mercy  when  the  peace  terms  should 
be  written.2 

Under  the  "  Young  Turks " 

Not  far  from  the  railway  station  in  the  ancient  city 
of  Damascus  there  stood  a  somewhat  pretentious, 
rather  European-looking  house.  The  chance  tourist 
who  passed  gave  it  merely  a  glance  and  possibly  won- 
dered why  all  the  street  windows  were  carefully 
boarded  and  why  a  Turkish  soldier  stood  guard  by 
the  door.  Probably  he  did  not  give  the  house  another 
thought  until,  one  day,  his  guide,  pointing  guardedly 
in  that  direction,  grasped  his  arm  confidentially  and 
in  subdued  tones  told  him  that  twenty  years  before,  a 
Turkish  Pasha,  who  was  too  much  interested  in  the 
progressive  policies  of  Europe,  had  one  day  arrived 
from  Constantinople  and  taken  up  his  abode  there;  that 
he  walked  in  the  garden  behind  the  high  wall  but 

1  Ambassador  Morgenthan's  Story,  page  125. 
a  London   Times   editorials,  Autumn  of   1914. 


18  THE  NEAR  EAST 

could  hold  no  communication  with  the  street,  and  a 
guard  was  always  stationed  at  his  door. 

To  the  tourist  the  house  thereafter  assumed  a  new 
importance;  before  his  eyes  he  beheld  a  part  of  the 
much-talked-of  spy  system  of  Turkey,  for  here  resided 
in  solitude  one  of  the  exiles  from  the  capital.  The 
Sultan  Abdul  Hamid  and  his  far-reaching  system  of 
secret  service  and  sudden  exile  became  a  reality. 
What  mysteries  resided  behind  those  boarded  win- 
dows! Possibly,  too,  what  cruelties!  And  what  of 
the  mental  agony  of  the  victim ! 

On  the  24th  of  July,  1908,  the  streets  and  public 
squares  of  every  city,  village,  and  town  in  the  Ottoman 
Empire  were  thronged  with  a  deliriously  happy  crowd ; 
Christian  priests  and  Moslem  imams  embraced  and 
kissed  each  other;  at  almost  every  corner  orators  and 
poets  were  giving  expression  to  their  exuberance  of 
joy  in  extravagant  prophecies  of  enduring  brother- 
hood and  emphatic  assertions  of  patriotic  loyalty  to  the 
"  Fatherland." 

This  demonstration  was  owing  to  the  fact  that,  after 
thirty  years  of  the  most  absolute  and  tyrannical  gov- 
ernment, the  Sultan,  at  the  command  of  a  party  of 
progress  and  reform,  had  proclaimed  a  constitutional 
form  of  government.  In  1876  a  constitution  had  been 
established,  but  it  was  withdrawn  two  years  later. 
This  old  constitution  was  now  taken  from  its  hiding- 
place  and  officially  proclaimed  by  the  most  solemn 
ceremonies  as  the  law  of  the  land. 

This  radical  change  had  been  brought  about  by  the 


THE  WORLD  WAR  IN  THE  NEAR  EAST  19 

so-called  "  party  of  Young  Turks  "  operating  through 
what  came  to  be  known  as  the  "  Committee  of  Union 
and  Progress."  They  proclaimed  as  their  motto, 
"  Liberty,  Justice,  Equality,  Fraternity."  It  had  been 
a  bloodless  revolution,  and  was  acclaimed  throughout 
the  world  as  one  of  the  most  astounding  of  historical 
events.  On  all  sides  it  was  believed  that  a  new  day 
had  dawned  for  Turkey;  that  the  problem  of  the  Near 
East  had  solved  itself;  that  the  plague-spot  of  Europe 
had  been  suddenly  and  miraculously  cleansed.  For- 
eign students  of  Turkish  politics  were  practically 
unanimous  in  their  expression  of  satisfaction  that  this 
change  had  come  from  within  the  empire  itself,  and 
that  a  day  of  hope  had  dawned  over  the  troubled  lands 
of  the  East. 

In  due  course  of  time  a  parliament  was  chosen,  a 
cabinet  formed,  and  the  wheels  of  the  new  machinery 
set  revolving.  The  first  sessions  of  this  new  legisla- 
tive assembly  were  models  of  dignity  and  decorum. 
Visitors  at  their  sittings  reported  that  they  formed  a 
striking  contrast  to  many  of  the  parliaments  of  the 
Western  lands  in  the  seriousness  with  which  each 
member  devoted  himself  to  the  business  in  hand. 

Turkey's  Triumvirate 

Events  of  national  and  even  world-wide  importance 
followed  in  rapid  succession.  The  five  years  following 
1908  witnessed  the  dethronement  of  "  the  great 
assassin,"  Abdul  Hamid,  and  the  binding  of  the 


20  THE  NEAR  EAST 

sword  of  Othman,  the  sign  of  sovereignty  upon  his 
brother  Mohammed  V,  who  for  thirty  years  had  been 
kept  a  prisoner  in  his  palace  for  no  other  reason  than 
that  he  was  heir  to  the  throne.  There  were  plots, 
counterplots,  intrigues,  and  assassinations  until  at  last 
three  men,  the  great  "  war  triumvirate  "of  Turkey, 
backed  by  a  secret  committee  of  thirty  or  forty  men, 
arose  to  power. 

The  pathway  which  brought  these  three  men,  Enver, 
Talaat,  and  D'jemal  to  the  head  of  affairs  was  marked 
by  many  unscrupulous  political  adventures  and  acts  of 
violence.  Enver  had  been  the  hero  of  the  Young  Turk 
revolution.  At  the  outset  he  was  very  probably  ani- 
mated by  a  true  desire  to  see  the  old  reactionary  order 
give  place  to  a  new,  progressive  government.  As  an 
army  officer  his  training  had  been  largely  German,  and 
he  admired  the  Teuton  power  and  efficiency.  But  per- 
sonal ambition  tempted  his  abilities,  and  he  rapidly 
rose  by  fair  means  and  by  foul  to  the  first  place  in 
the  Empire.  His  two  associates  had  not  passed 
through  as  dramatic  a  career,  yet  their  rise  to  power 
had  been  almost  as  rapid,  and  they  had  come  an  equal 
distance.  Talaat  rose  from  a  position  as  mail-carrier 
and  telegraph  operator  to  Grand  Vizier  of  the  realm. 
He  had  no  particular  training,  but  through  sheer 
energy  and  dominating  force,  such  force  as  often  pro- 
duces the  untrained  political  boss  of  American  cities, 
he  forged  to  the  very  front.  D'jemal  probably  had 
more  education  than  his  confreres.  His  training  had 
been  French,  and  he  is  reported,  during  the  war,  to 


THE  WORLD  WAR  IN  THE  NEAR  EAST  21 

have  stated  that  he  loved  the  French  and  respected  the 
British. 

All  three  of  these  men  had  ability,  combined  with 
unbounded  ambition,  overweening  conceit,  and  love  of 
flattery.  Except  possibly  Enver,  they  had  no  personal 
affection  for  Germany.  But  in  alliance  with  Germany 
they  seemed  to  see  the  surest  road  to  the  success  which 
they  coveted.  Undoubtedly  these  men  were  moved  by 
a  certain  kind  of  patriotism.  They  were  anxious  for 
Turkey  to  progress,  they  advocated  a  "  Pan-Turanian- 
ism  "  or  "  all  Turk  "  union,  and  they  saw  pretty  clearly 
many  of  the  disabilities  under  which  their  country 
labored. 

Where,  then,  did  they  make  their  mistake  and  how 
did  they  plunge  their  country  into  ruin?  Together 
with  the  violent  means  by  which  they  had  raised  them- 
selves to  power  and  the  disregard  which  they  had 
shown  for  the  rights  and  welfare  of  the  various 
peoples  of  the  land,  what  were  the  elements,  present 
or  lacking,  that  at  length  produced  the  break-up  of  the 
Turkish  Empire? 

Foreign  Influences 

During  the  sixteenth  century  the  Turkish  Empire 
gained  its  widest  area,  extending  from  the  borders  of 
Austria  to  Persia,  from  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Cau- 
casus to  the  deserts  of  Africa.  At  this  time  the 
Sultan  of  Turkey  ruled  over  an  empire  2,000,000 
square  miles  in  extent,  containing  a  population  of 
50,000,000  peoples  speaking  a  score  of  different  Ian- 


22  THE  NEAR  EAST 

guages  and  dialects.  Since  then  her  borders  have 
been  constantly  contracting:  Hungary,  the  Balkan 
States,  southern  Russia,  the  Barbary  coast,  Cyprus, 
and  Egypt  have  one  by  one  slipped  from  her  posses- 
sion. 

As  the  Turkish  Empire  has  gradually  weakened  and 
given  increasing  signs  of  final  dissolution,  and  as  the 
territorial  ambitions  of  the  great  powers  of  Europe 
have  developed,  the  interest  and  influence  of  foreign 
governments  in  the  Near  East  have  been  extended. 

Before  the  war,  if  one  were  buying  stamps  or  mail- 
ing a  letter  in  Constantinople  or  Jerusalem  or,  in  fact, 
in  any  of  the  larger  cities  along  the  Turkish  coast,  one 
had  the  choice  of  six  post-offices  of  as  many  nationali- 
ties. And  not  infrequently  when  there  were  many 
stamps  to  buy,  the  clever  purchaser  could  bid  one  office 
against  another  and  secure  a  substantial  rebate  in  the 
price  of  stamps. 

This  right  to  operate  post-offices  was  but  one  of  the 
many  privileges  conceded  to  foreigners  residing  within 
the  Empire.  Under  these  "  Concessions  "  or  "  Capitu- 
lations "  all  foreigners,  whether  merchant,  missionary, 
or  pilgrim,  were  granted  permission  freely  to  enter  and 
travel  in  Moslem  territory  "  whether  for  devotion  and 
pilgrimage  to  the  holy  places  or  for  trading  in  the 
exportation  or  importation  of  every  kind  of  unpro- 
hibited  goods."  There  were  also  certain  rights  con- 
ceded regarding  holding  property  and  consular  trial  in 
criminal  and  civil  cases  between  foreigners.  The  first 
of  these  "  Concessions  "  dates  back  many  years,  back 


THE  WORLD  WAR  IN  THE  NEAR  EAST  23 

to  the  days  when  arrangements  had  to  be  made  for 
the  Christian  pilgrims  to  the  Holy  Land.  Then,  too, 
the  Moslem  conquerors  looked  upon  foreigners  as 
guests  of  the  Empire,  and  with  a  spirit  of  Eastern  hos- 
pitality, extended  to  them  these  special  rights.  Later 
on  the  European  powers  exacted  an  extension  of  these 
privileges  for  the  fuller  protection  of  their  citizens. 
And  so,  by  the  beginning  of  the  war,  there  had  grown 
up  an  extensive  body  of  "  Capitulations  "  benefiting 
and  protecting  and  granting  extra-territorial  rights  to 
foreigners.1 

Because  the  Suez  Canal  is  the  route  to  India,  Great 
Britain  established  herself  in  Egypt.  Because  Russia 
threatened  to  overrun  Persia  and  encroach  upon 
India,  the  British  must  needs  exercise  a  controlling 
influence  in  southern  Persia  and  the  Persian  Gulf. 
Because  all  her  northern  ports  were  ice-bound  for  half 
the  year,  and  her  only  outlet  to  the  south  was  through 
the  Bosphorus  and  Dardanelles,  which  were  dominated 
by  Constantinople,  Russia  planned  and  intrigued  and 
fought  for  the  possession  of  that  city  and  its  adjacent 
territory.  France,  Italy,  and  Greece  each  marked  out 
for  themselves  colonies  in  Syria  and  Asia  Minor  which 
they  wanted  when  the  day  of  division  should  come. 
And  Germany  and  Austria,  conceiving  their  great 
strategy  of  a  central  empire  from  the  North  Sea  to 
the  Persian  Gulf,  became  profoundly  interested  in 
playing  the  diplomatic  game  at  the  Sublime  Porte. 

Each  nation  had  already  secured  in  one  or  more  of 

1  Daybreak  in  Turkey,  Chapter  XXIII. 


24  THE  NEAR  EAST 

these  Eastern  lands  some  special  commercial  right, 
some  railway,  harbor,  or  mining  concession,  and  each 
had,  little  by  little,  fixed  its  hold  on  the  particular 
territory  which  to  it  seemed  especially  desirable. 

The  Break-up  of  the  Near  East 

Out  of  this  jumble  of  foreign  influence  and  exploita- 
tion, of  military  campaigns,  border  warfare,  and  de- 
portations there  has  emerged  the  long  expected  break- 
ing up  of  the  Near  East.  For  more  than  four  hun- 
dred years  Turkey  has  been  the  dominating  power  in 
the  Levant,  and  for  a  century  she  has  been  a  center 
of  contention  to  the  rival  nations  of  Europe.  Now 
that  power  is  gone,  and  the  question  is  fairly  before 
the  world :  What  just  and  lasting  disposition  will  you 
make  of  these  lands  and  their  people? 

A  statement  of  the  attempts  that  began,  with  the 
closing  of  the  great  war,  to  restore  order  and  pros- 
perity in  the  Near  East  must  be  reserved  for  a  later 
chapter.  Here  we  can  note  only  the  fundamental 
nature  of  the  changes  that  have  forced  themselves  upon 
nations  whose  civilizations  we  are  accustomed  to  think 
of  as  unchanging. 

The  outside  world  has  crossed  the  mountain  ram- 
parts and  entered  abruptly  into  the  lives  of  the  peo- 
ple. The  old  order  has  passed,  whether  they  will  or 
no.  The  watchwords  can  no  longer  be  "  bukra " 
(to-morrow)  and  "  ma-lesh  "  (never  mind),  but  must 
be  "  to-day  "  and  "  do  it  now."  It  is  not  mere  political 


THE  WORLD  WAR  IN  THE  NEAR  EAST  25 

readjustments  that  are  demanded.  The  deepest 
springs  of  human  life  have  been  touched  in  the  play 
of  the  great  forces  that  have  been  at  work  in  recent 
years.  The  religious  thought  of  the  people  has  been 
profoundly  influenced,  and  with  it  the  whole  body  of 
social  custom  and  civil  life. 

Islam  itself  presents  a  new  aspect  to  a  world  that 
had  come  to  think  of  it  as  a  political  and  religious 
system  drawing  intense  loyalty  from  all  who  acknowl- 
edged its  sway,  and  carrying  on  successfully  a  pro- 
gram of  advance  into  distant  fields.  It  was  an  occa- 
sion of  universal  surprise  and  of  deepened  interest  in 
Mohammedan  affairs  when,  on  November  13,  1914, 
the  Sultan  of  Turkey,  Caliph  of  Islam,  unfurled  the 
green  banner  and,  with  the  most  sacred  ceremonies, 
proclaimed  the  "  Jehad,"  or  "  Holy  War  "  against  all 
"  infidels,"  only  to  find  that  his  proclamation  was 
almost  universally  unheeded  by  the  Moslems  of  other 
lands.  Religion  and  political  power  have  ever  gone 
hand  in  hand  in  the  spread  of  Mohammedanism.  This 
new  situation  raises  everywhere  the  questions:  Are 
disintegrating  influences  at  work  in  the  body  of  Islam, 
and  what  is  their  significance  in  the  various  countries 
where  Mohammedanism  has  its  followers? 

The  Needs  of  the  New  Day 

Political  domination  has  failed  to  bring  peace,  unity, 
and  progress  to  the  peoples  of  the  Near  East.  What 
new  approach  must  statesmen  find?  What  answer  is 


26  THE  NEAR  EAST 

the  Christian  world  prepared  to  give?  Can  it  point 
the  way  to  the  practical  application  of  a  higher  states- 
manship based  on  the  only  principles  sufficient  for  the 
days  ahead — the  ancient  and  eternal  principles  of  Him 
who  walked  these  hills  that  have  been  scarred  anew 
by  war? 

For  a  century  Christian  missions  have  been  laying  a 
broad  foundation  in  these  lands.  The  missionaries 
and  the  new  churches  have  gained  the  confidence  of 
the  people.  They  have  exercised  a  wide  influence  in 
training  leaders.  Now  in  the  day  of  the  greatest  need 
the  way  is  open  as  never  before. 


II 

THE  MINGLING  OF  MANY  NATIONS 


CHAPTER  TWO 

THE   MINGLING   OF   MANY   NATIONS 

TIKE  a  great  corner-stone  stands  Mount  Ararat  at 
•*-^  the  cross-roads  of  three  nations,  lifting  its  snow- 
capped summit,  an  almost  perfect  cone,  fourteen 
thousand  feet  above  the  surrounding  plain.  The  Per- 
sians call  this  mountain,  Kur-i-Nuh,  which  means  "  the 
Mountain  of  Noah,"  for  here,  tradition  says  is  the  site 
whence  Noah  and  his  family  replenished  the  earth. 
The  Garden  of  Eden  was  also  somewhere  in  this 
region  to  the  south  where  four  mighty  rivers  have  their 
sources. 

Whether  history  substantiates  the  stories  of  tradi- 
tion or  not,  the  fact  still  remains  that  the  region  over- 
shadowed by  this  great  mountain  and  adjacent  terri- 
tories has  been  throughout  all  history  the  home  of  the 
early  races  of  mankind.  Many  of  these  ancient  peo- 
ples, who  are  figuring  in  history  at  the  present  time, 
are  still  found  in  their  original  homes. 

From  the  Black  Sea  on  the  north  to  the  great  deserts 
of  Africa  and  Arabia  on  the  south,  from  the  Caspian 
Sea  and  Persia  on  the  east  to  the  Mediterranean  and 

29 


30  THE  NEAR  EAST 

yEgean  seas  on  the  west,  there  is  a  wide  stretch  of 
lofty  mountains,  plateaus,  river  valleys,  plains,  and 
deserts  where  great  nations  have  risen  and  fallen,  and 
where  the  foundations  of  civilization  and  human  liber- 
ties have  been  wrought  out.  Governments  have  passed 
away;  great  emperors  who  once  ruled  from  magnifi- 
cent capitals  now  covered  by  desert  sands  are  but 
names  on  the  pages  of  history;  but  the  people  remain, 
holding  tenaciously  to  the  lands  that  have  descended 
to  them  through  long  inheritance  and  living  much  as 
lived  their  ancestors  in  those  days  of  old. 

A  Patchwork  of  Peoples 

In  order  that  we  may  study  intelligently  the  ques- 
tions of  the  Near  East,  it  is  essential  that  we  make 
the  acquaintance  of  its  peoples.  This  is  not  an  easy 
task,  because  so  many  different  groups  are  mingled 
in  its  population.  But  in  proportion  to  the  complexity 
of  the  life  is  the  fascination  of  its  study,  probably  no 
part  of  the  world  affording  a  greater  number  of  inter- 
ests and  problems.  In  any  large  community  in  the 
Near  East  to-day  it  is  as  in  the  day  of  Pentecost  when 
there  were  dwelling  in  Jerusalem  "  men  from  every 
nation  under  heaven." 

The  Turks 

Enver  Pasha,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Young 
Turks,  said  in  1908,  "  We  are  all  brothers.  There  are 
no  longer  in  Turkey  Bulgarians,  Greeks,  Servians, 


THE  MINGLING  OF  MANY  NATIONS  31 

Roumanians,  Mussulmans,  Jews.  Under  the  same 
blue  sky  we  are  all  proud  to  be  Ottomans."  Henry 
Morgenthau,  in  commenting  upon  this,  wrote :  "  That 
statement  represented  the  Young  Turk  ideal  for  the 
new  Turkish  state,  but  it  was  an  ideal  which  was  evi- 
dently beyond  their  ability  to  translate  into  a  reality. 
The  races  which  had  been  maltreated  and  massacred 
for  centuries  by  the  Turks  could  not  transform  them- 
selves over  night  into  brothers,  and  the  hatreds, 
jealousies,  and  religious  prejudices  of  the  past  still 
divided  Turkey  into  a  medley  of  warring  clans." 

Not  all  the  people  who  live  within  the  Turkish  Em- 
pire should  be  called  "  Turks."  The  people  to  whom 
the  name  "  Turk  "  may  be  strictly  applied,  have  lived 
in  the  land  for  a  shorter  period  than  have  any  other 
group.  As  compared  with  the  other  races  they  are 
really  newcomers,  for  they  pushed  their  way  out  from 
the  plains  of  Turkestan  not  more  than  eight  or  nine 
centuries  ago.  Just  at  the  time  when  William  the 
Conqueror  was  leading  his  Norman  army  for  the 
conquest  of  England,  the  Turks  overspread  Asia 
Minor  and  threatened  eastern  Europe.1 

Before  the  present  war  they  numbered  about  six 
millions,  living  mostly  in  the  central  and  western  por- 
tion of  the  peninsula  of  Asia  Minor.  They  are  Mon- 
golian in  race  and  are  of  the  same  stock  as  the 
Turkomans  who  live  to  the  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 
They  are  Mohammedan  in  religion,  are  densely  ig- 
norant and  hence  fanatical.  There  is  no  comparison 

1  The  Riddle  of  Nearer  Asia,  pages   116-120. 


32  THE  NEAR  EAST 

between  them  and  their  Christian  neighbors  in  pro- 
gressive ability  and  initiative. 

The  domination  of  the  Turks  has  been  a  military 
one.  They  are  fierce  warriors  and  loyal  to  their 
leaders,  blindly  following  and  trusting. 

Even  in  this  great  war  they  have  proved  themselves, 
when  well  led  and  armed,  the  equal  of  any  soldier  in 
the  world. 

Though  capable  of  the  most  cruel  atrocities  when 
their  religious  or  racial  fanaticism  is  aroused,  yet  as 
regular  soldiers  they  have  shown  themselves  both  good 
warriors  and  clean  fighters.  The  British  troops  came 
to  respect  their  Turkish  antagonists,  among  whom 
they  found  far  more  of  the  ancient  chivalry  of  war 
than  among  their  "  Christian  "  opponents  on  the  West- 
ern front. 

While  the  popular  mind  thinks  first  of  the  Turks 
as  soldiers  and  as  continually  engaged  in  some  uprising 
for  massacre  or  loot,  it  is  hardly  fair  to  make  such  a 
generalization.  For  the  greater  part  they  are  peasants, 
living  a  quiet  pastoral  and  agricultural  life.  As  a  rule 
they  are  not  clever  as  merchants,  and  even  on  their 
farms  they  do  not  equal  in  thrift  and  enterprise  the 
Greek  and  Armenian  peasants. 

Physically  the  Turks  are  deficient  in  comparison 
with  the  Christian  peoples  about  them.  Accurate  sta- 
tistics are  lacking,  but  it  seems  that  they  are  not  in- 
creasing greatly  in  numbers.  In  contrast  to  their 
neighbors,  small  families  are  the  rule;  usually  there 
are  not  more  than  two  or  at  most  three  children. 


THE  MINGLING  OF  MANY  NATIONS  33 

Americans  who  have  lived  among  them  admit  freely 
that  the  educated  class  is  corrupt;  but  they  find  the 
common  peasant  kindly,  lovable,  and  comparatively 
honest.  One  has  but  to  travel  through  the  country  to 
learn  the  truth  of  the  phrase,  "  Oriental  courtesy,"  for 
both  the  Turkish  peasant  and  his  Christian  neighbor 
show  a  noticeable  hospitality  to  the  wayfarer.  Except 
on  occasion  when  his  religious  leaders  drive  him  to 
outrage,  he  is  friendly  and  well  inclined  toward  Chris- 
tians. 

The  statement  that  the  Turk  as  a  whole  is  far  better 
than  his  government  is  so  admittedly  true  that  one 
should  carefully  distinguish  between  the  mass  of 
Turkish  people  and  the  official  class  who  constitute  the 
government.  This  distinction  can  justly  be  made  in 
fairness  and  without  attempting  to  whitewash  the 
common  Turk. 

The  Armenians 

A  half  century  before  Constantine  beheld  the  vision 
of  the  cross  and  inscribed  it  on  his  banner  as  the  sign 
by  which  he  proposed  to  conquer;  at  a  time  when  the 
Roman  emperors  were  making  every  effort  by  fire  and 
sword  to  stamp  out  this  sect  of  the  Nazarenes;  at  a 
time  when  to  be  baptized  was  a  stigma  and  to  perse- 
cute was  the  fashion;  at  such  a  time  the  early  Church 
was  thrilled  with  the  news  that  the  king  of  a  great 
and  ancient  nation  had  doffed  his  crown  while  a  Chris- 
tian bishop  administered  the  rite  of  baptism.  It  was 
Tiridates,  king  of  Armenia  who,  in  the  latter  part  of 


34  THE  NEAR  EAST 

the  third  century,  accepted  the  new  religion.  His 
example  was  followed  by  nearly  all  of  his  people,  and 
thereby  they  became  the  first  nation  to  adopt  Chris- 
tianity. 

Born  to  the  faith  in  the  days  of  the  early  martyrs, 
these  people  have  for  sixteen  centuries,  one  generation 
after  another,  bought  their  faith  at  the  price  of  a 
martyr's  crown. 

The  Armenians  are  a  nation  of  great  antiquity,  for 
their  names  are  mentioned  on  the  Assyrian  monu- 
ments. Tradition  traces  their  ancestry  directly  back 
to  Noah  through  Japheth  and  claims  that  their  lan- 
guage was  the  one  spoken  in  the  Ark.  It  was  not 
until  1514  that  Armenia  was  included  in  the  Ottoman 
Empire,  where  it  has  remained  throughout  these  past 
four  hundred  years. 

The  kingdom  of  Armenia  extended  from  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  to  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas 
and  the  foot  of  the  Caucasus  Mountains.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  war,  the  Armenians  in  the  Turkish 
Empire  numbered  about  two  millions.  There  are  as 
many  more  living  in  the  adjacent  territories  of  Russia 
and  Persia,  and  nearly  half  a  million  have  found 
homes  in  America  and  Europe.  The  Armenian  Na- 
tional Committee  claim  that  the  new  Armenia  will 
have  a  population  of  over  three  millions  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  one  million  or  more  have  perished  during 
the  war. 

Of  all  the  peoples  of  the  Near  East  the  Armenians 
have  shown  themselves  most  tenacious  of  their  na- 


THE  MINGLING  OF  MANY  NATIONS  35 

tional  traditions  and  vigorous  in  their  endeavors  to 
make  for  themselves  a  place  in  the  world.  They  have 
maintained  their  own  system  of  schools,  have  sought 
higher  education  wherever  possible,  and  have  in  many 
ways  demonstrated  their  enterprise  and  ability  to 
progress.  Many  of  their  men  have  occupied  high  posi- 
tions in  the  Turkish  government  and  have  contributed 
no  little  share  to  whatever  constructive  work  has  been 
accomplished  by  the  Ottoman  Empire. 

They  have  perseveringly  held  to  their  Christian 
profession  in  spite  of  repeated  persecutions  and  mas- 
sacres and  have  exhibited  the  greatest  fortitude  and 
constancy. 

Yet  the  Armenian  has  an  unpleasantly  combative 
self-assertiveness  of  character  that  renders  it  difficult 
for  him  to  cooperate  with  others.  Very  possibly  this 
has  largely  contributed  to  producing  his^  lifelong 
tragedy.  But  when  one  thinks  of  the  peculiarities  of 
the  Armenian  character,  of  a  certain  unreliability  and 
quarrelsomeness,  one  must  remember  the  circum- 
stances under  which  he  has  lived.  x  For  centuries  he 
has  endured  repression  and  cruelty  both  from  rulers 
and  from  the  class  in  power.  To  exist  under  the  in- 
human conditions  which  have  prevailed,  there  has 
grown  up  among  the  people  a  system  of  intrigue  and 
deceit  which  has  seemed  to  become  a  part  of  their 
individual  characteristics.  With  the  necessity  for 
lying  taken  away,  however,  the  people  are  found  to 
be  no  less  honest  and  trustworthy  than  others. 

1  The  Riddle  of  Nearer  Asia,  page  125;  Daybreak  in  Turkey,  Chapter  VI. 


36  THE  NEAR  EAST 

The  Greeks 

Where  the  Dardanelles  empty  the  waters  of  the 
Black  Sea  into  the  ^gean,  here  lie  the  plains  of  Troy. 
Here  Agamemnon  stormed  the  city  walls,  and  the 
stories  of  Priam,  Achilles,  and  Hector  were  enacted. 
Along  these  Asia  Minor  coasts  the  tales  of  Perseus, 
Andromeda,  Jason,  Adonis,  and  Daphne  become  real. 
This  is  the  home  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  through- 
out the  changing  centuries  they  have  remained  the 
chief  inhabitants  of  the  coast  lands  of  Asia  Minor  and 
the  islands  of  the  sea.  Smyrna  is  practically  a  Greek 
city,  and  at  least  one  third  of  the  people  of  Con- 
stantinople are  Greeks.  Before  the  war  there  were 
not  less  than  a  million  Greeks  in  this  part  of  the  Near 
East,  and  many  Greek  villages  are  to  be  found  in  the 
interior. 

While  they  are  chiefly  engaged  in  commerce,  fol- 
lowing the  traditions  of  their  ancestors,  many  of  the 
Greeks  are  farmers  and  fruit  growers. 

In  the  book  of  Revelation  there  are  recorded  brief 
letters  which  were  written  by  the  Apostle  John  to  the 
seven  churches  of  western  Asia  Minor.  In  the  light 
of  recent  events  affecting  so  profoundly  the  lives  of 
the  Christian  peoples  of  this  region,  these  letters  are 
of  renewed  interest,  for  the  seven  churches  were  the 
forerunners  of  the  great  Greek  Orthodox  Church 
which  is  now  predominant  in  eastern  Europe  and 
western  Asia.  Chrysostom,  the  golden-tongued  orator 
of  Antioch,  who  afterwards  became  Bishop  of  Con- 


THE  MINGLING  OF  MANY  NATIONS  37 

stantinople,  and  many  another  famous  ecclesiastic  and 
theologian  grew  up  in  these  Greek  churches. 

The  Greeks  of  to-day  are  direct  descendants  in  lan- 
guage, customs,  and  religion  of  the  Greeks  of  the  early 
Church  and  of  ancient  history.  Like  the  Armenians, 
they  have  maintained  their  own  system  of  schools  and 
have  established  many  gymnasiums  or  schools  for 
higher  learning.  They  rank  perhaps  first  of  all  the 
people  of  the  Levant  in  the  persistence  with  which 
they  have  supported  schools  for  their  children.  A 
fairly  high  percentage  of  them  possess  a  good  educa- 
tion. In  this,  too,  they  follow  the  traditions  of  the 
ancient  Greeks. 

During  the  war  the  Greeks  suffered  terribly  from 
the  persecutions  of  the  Turks.  The  number  that  were 
deported  from  their  homes  to  the  interior  of  the 
country  can  probably  never  be  definitely  ascertained, 
but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  it  amounts  to  several  hundred 
thousand.  Cut  off  from  all  means  of  self-support,  they 
have  been  reduced  to  beggary,  and  a  large  proportion 
of  them  have  perished  from  exposure  and  from 
hunger.  Politically  their  sympathies  are  entirely  with 
Greece.  Many  of  them  hold  Greek  passports,  and  all 
of  them  look  for  the  day  when  they  shall  become  a 
part  of  Greater  Greece. 

The  Kurds 

When  Richard  of  the  Lion  Heart  lay  in  his  royal 
pavilion  in  Palestine  burning  with  fever,  an  Arab 
doctor,  skilled  in  the  treatment  of  Eastern  diseases, 


38  THE  NEAR  EAST 

entered  the  Crusader  ranks  under  a  flag  of  truce. 
Saladin,  leader  of  the  Saracens,  had  sent  his  own  per- 
sonal physician  to  the  relief  of  his  enemy  and  compeer. 
This  Saladin,  about  whom  tradition  has  told  so  many 
tales  of  romance  and  chivalry,  and  whom  history  has 
recorded  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  military  leaders, 
belonged  by  race  to  the  people  who  inhabit  the  uplands 
north  of  Mesopotamia,  the  Media  of  the  days  of  King 
Cyrus,  Kurdistan  of  to-day.  Saladin  was  a  full- 
blooded  Kurd. 

When  Xenophon  with  his  10,000  men  made  his 
famous  march  from  Babylon  to  the  sea,  he  encountered 
great  opposition  from  the  Caraduchi  of  the  mountains. 
These  hill  tribes  were  the  direct  ancestors  of  the 
present-day  Kurds.  They  are  still  a  wild,  nomadic 
people,  many  of  them  living  in  black  hair-cloth  tents, 
some  in  villages  ruled  over  by  a  feudal  lord  who  has 
his  castle  in  some  mountain  fastness.  They  keep 
flocks  and  herds  and  to  some  extent  till  the  soil.  But 
their  chief  livelihood  has  been  derived  from  robbing 
caravans  and  plundering  the  villages  of  their  Armenian 
neighbors. 

All  together,  there  are  perhaps  two  millions  of  these 
Kurdish  tribesmen  dwelling  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Asia  Minor  and  in  western  Persia  among  the  hills  and 
mountains  north  of  the  Tigris  River.  Their  language 
is  Aryan,  though  with  a  very  large  mixture  of 
Turanian  and  Semitic. 

In  religion  they  are  nominally  Moslem,  but  they  have 
never  been  loyal  to  their  Mohammedan  rulers.  They 


THE  MINGLING  OF  MANY  NATIONS  39 

have  been  in  constant  revolt  and  have  often  maintained 
a  semi-independence.  Many  elements  of  heathen  wor- 
ship are  still  retained  by  them.  Some  of  the  tribes 
are  "  Yedzedi "  or  devil  worshipers ;  among  others, 
there  are  certain  religious  rites  which  resemble  Chris- 
tian ceremonies,  as,  for  example,  the  custom  of 
administering  bread  dipped  in  wine  to  the  kneeling 
worshiper. 

The  Kurds  are  said  to  be  a  brave,  virile  race,  pre- 
dominantly illiterate,  but  when  brought  into  contact 
with  education,  they  show  a  fair  degree  of  intellectual 
ability.  They  are  home-loving,  frugal,  and  capable 
of  enduring  great  hardship.  They  practise  strict 
monogamy,  and  in  the  family  life  the  women  occupy 
an  equal  place  with  the  men. 

Dr.  T.  N.  Andrus,  for  many  years  a  missionary  in 
Mardin,  Turkey,  writes :  "  I  admire  the  Kurd  because 
I  love  him.  He  is  more  moral  than  either  Turk  or 
Arab.  The  Kurds  have  capacities  which  need  only 
opportunity  for  right  development  to  make  them  a 
sturdy  people."  Another  American  missionary  writes, 
"  The  Kurds  are  noted  for  cruelty  and  violence.  The 
reputation  has  been  well  earned.  Toward  his  enemy 
he  is  frightful  enough;  but  toward  dependents  and 
toward  those  who  have  entered  the  circle  of  friendship 
as  guests,  he  is  kind,  generous,  and  faithful.  During 
the  recent  Armenian  atrocities  they  have,  for  the  most 
part,  treated  the  Armenians  with  kindness.  They  have 
helped  thousands  of  them  to  escape  from  Turkey  into 
Russia  and  even  in  their  own  poverty  have  fed  many 


40  THE  NEAR  EAST 

destitute    Armenians,    who    otherwise    would    have 
starved." 

It  is  reported  that  one  of  the  most  interesting  fields 
for  missionary  advance  will  be  among  these  Kurdish 
tribes.  Many  of  them  already  have  a  much  higher 
regard  for  Christianity  than  for  Mohammedanism, 
and  if  once  they  become  imbued  with  the  spirit  of 
Christianity,  they  will  make  stalwart,  energetic 
disciples. 

The  Arabs 

Damascus,  Aleppo,  Baghdad!  How  the  mind  con- 
jures up  the  tales  of  Arabian  Nights  and  pictures  long 
trains  of  camels  and  caravans  with  rich  spices  from 
Arabia,  bearing  their  wares  to  the  busy  Syrian  marts ! 
And  these  cities  of  Sindbad  and  Aladdin,  of  the 
Caliphs  and  Crusaders,  are  still  great,  thriving  centers 
of  trade.  But  while  the  bazaars  and  baths  and 
mosques  are  still  there,  the  flickering  oil  wicks  are  now 
replaced  by  steady  electric  lamps.  Thus  do  the  old 
and  new  contend  and  blend — even  as,  on  occasion,  the 
camel  and  the  trolley-car  in  the  crooked,  narrow 
streets. 

When  one  moves  south  across  the  line  of  the 
Baghdad  railway  he  leaves  at  once  the  mingled  races 
of  Turk,  Armenian,  Greek,  and  Kurd,  of  Indo- 
European,  and  Mongol,  to  encounter  the  true  Semitic. 

The  Arabs  are  as  ancient  in  direct  racial  connec- 
tions as  the  Hebrews.  They  are  an  original  Semitic 
stock  numbering  about  one  million  of  pure  blood. 


THE  MINGLING  OF  MANY  NATIONS  41 

While  their  home  is  the  peninsula  of  Arabia,  time 
and  again  they  have  swept  over  the  neighboring  ter- 
ritories of  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Egypt  and  have 
left  a  permanent  impress  of  their  stock  upon  these 
lands.  In  fact  the  great  cities  of  the  Arabic  world  are 
beyond  the  borders  of  Arabia. 

From  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  shores  of  the  Great 
Sea,  from  the  Taurus  Mountains  to  the  Suez  Canal, 
and  on  through  Egypt  and  the  Sudan  one  language 
prevails,  the  Arabic.  While  there  are  some  local  dif- 
ferences of  pronunciation  and  colloquial  vocabulary, 
the  written  language  and  the  language  of  the  schools 
is  the  same. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  in  passing  that  the  Arabic 
is  a  sister  of  the  Hebrew  tongue,  and  the  Aramaic, 
which  was  spoken  in  the  days  of  Jesus,  belongs  to  the 
same  Semitic  group.  ^ 

The  Arabian  people  are  naturally  religious,  and  the 
story  of  how  they  have  spread  the  religion  of  their 
prophet,  Mohammed,  is  too  familiar  to  need  further 
emphasis.  It  is  a  narrative  of  zeal  and  intensity  in 
religious  effort  that  in  some  of  its  aspects  is  without 
parallel.  A  later  chapter  touches  upon  this  again. 
They  are  aliens  to  the  Turks,  whom  they  regard  as 
having  usurped  the  title  of  Caliph,  which  they  believe 
rightfully  belongs  to  themselves. 

Because  of  their  varied  environment,  the  Arabs 
differ  so  greatly  in  customs  that  it  is  impossible  to 
make  other  than  contradictory  statesments  about  them. 
For  example,  while  the  tribes  of  the  desert  are  still 


42  THE  NEAR  EAST 

nomadic,  the  Arabs  of  the  towns  have  a  large  degree 
of  culture. 

There  is  a  rich  literature  in  Arabic,  and  to-day  it 
is  the  language  of  the  scholar  in  lands  far  distant  from 
its  source.  In  the  Dark  Ages  of  Europe,  Arabia  was 
a  dominating  force  in  the  world  of  learning,  and 
Arabian  mathematicians  and  scientists  contributed 
much  to  modern  civilization. 

The  race  is  capable  of  great  things  and  must  be 
reckoned  with  in  the  reconstruction  of  the  East.  Arab 
influence  in  Africa  is  becoming  so  powerful  an  Islamic 
missionary  force  that  it  is  a  foe  to  progress.  And  yet 
this  same  virile  strength  of  character  directed  toward 
Christian  missionary  work,  would  be  as  productive 
of  widespread  influence,  which  would  include  not  only 
his  own  great  nation,  but  whole  masses  in  Asia  and 
Africa.1 

The  Syrians 

Before  the  war,  there  were  about  three  and  one  half 
millions  of  Syrians  living  in  Syria  and  Upper  Meso- 
potamia. They  are  a  composite  race,  the  foundation 
stock  being  chiefly  Semitic.  There  have  been  inter- 
mixtures of  Greek,  Roman,  and  Crusader  blood,  but 
their  language  has  remained  Arabic.  Intellectually, 
they  rank  very  high,  and  they  welcome  every  oppor- 
tunity for  education. 

The  Syrians  are  largely  an  agricultural  people,  and 
their  peasants  are  exceedingly  industrious,  although 

*  The  Riddle  of  Nearer  Asia.  Chapter  VI. 


THE  MINGLING  OF  MANY  NATIONS  43 

they  show  little  ingenuity  in  developing  efficient 
methods.  They  have  a  decided  aptitude  for  commerce 
and,  like  their  Phoenician  forebears,  they  travel  to  all 
parts  of  the  earth  in  pursuit  of  trade. 

About  two  thirds  of  the  Syrians  are  Orthodox 
Mohammedans ;  the  other  third  are  identified  with  the 
Eastern  Christian  churches  of  which  the  Greek  Ortho- 
dox and  Maronite  are  the  strongest. 

The  Jews 

Throughout  the  Near  East  there  are  probably  one 
half  or  three  fourths  of  a  million  Jews.  In  Palestine 
itself  there  are  perhaps  one  hundred  thousand;  a  large 
colony  lives  in  the  neighborhood  of  Baghdad,  and 
many  are  found  in  Persia  and  Egypt.  The  great  bulk 
of  the  Jewish  race,  however,  are  not  in  the  old  Hebrew 
fatherland,  but  are  scattered  throughout  the  world. 
Of  course  they  all  look  with  love  and  longing  toward 
the  city  of  Zion,  and  most  of  them  dream  of  the  day 
when  they  may  at  least  visit  the  scene  of  their  great 
national  life.  Yet  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  any 
large  proportion  of  them  will  ever  return  to  the  hills 
of  Judea. 

Students  of  prophecy  watch  every  sign  and  indica- 
tion that  will  help  to  interpret  the  writings  concerning 
this  wonderful  people.  Sometimes  these  are  treated 
with  too  great  regard  for  fanciful  interpretations,  and 
sometimes  the  passages  are  too  literally  read.  Yet  all 
the  world  is  concerned  with  the  movements  of  this 


44  THE  NEAR  EAST 

versatile  race.  Everywhere  people  are  deeply  inter- 
ested in  what  shall  be  the  future  of  the  land  of  Pales- 
tine. 

Tourists  to  the  city  of  Jerusalem  have  visited  on 
Friday  afternoons  the  little  narrow  street  known  as 
"  the  Jews'  wailing  place."  There  they  have  seen  rabbis 
and  people  kissing  the  ancient  foundation  stones  of  the 
old  temple  structure  and,  with  heads  devoutly  bowed, 
reading  their  prophets  and  repeating  their  prayers, 
praying  for  the  time  when  the  temple  will  be  restored 
to  them.  This  is  the  nearest  to  the  temple  area  that 
the  Jews  are  ever  permitted  to  come.  The  Moham- 
medan rulers  grant  the  Christians  permission  to  visit 
these  sacred  sites,  but  not  the  Jews. 

Within  the  last  twenty  years  there  has  been  a  great 
increase  in  the  number  of  Jews  who  have  returned  to 
Jerusalem  and  Palestine.  Many  agricultural  colonies 
have  been  established  by  friends  in  Europe  and 
America,  but  the  success  of  these  ventures  has  not 
been  entirely  satisfactory.  The  Jews  to  be  found  in 
the  streets  of  Jerusalem  do  not  inspire  the  enthusiasm 
of  their  co-religionists  from  this  country.  Bigoted, 
ignorant,  unkempt,  they  are  not  such  individuals  as 
one  would  like  to  choose  for  the  reestablishment  of 
Zion.  The  majority  of  them  have  no  business  and  are 
generally  supported  by  gift  funds  from  foreign  coun- 
tries. For  the  most  part  they  have  gone  to  Jerusalem 
either  to  be  supported  by  charity  or,  in  the  case  of  the 
older  men  and  women,  in  order  to  die  and  be  buried 
on  sacred  soil. 


THE  MINGLING  OF  MANY  NATIONS  45 

Zionism  has  for  its  aim  "  to  secure  for  the  Jewish 
people  a  publicly  and  legally  assured  home  in  Pales- 
tine." *  "  Our  whole  program  may  be  summed  up  in 
the  phrase,  a  peaceful  home  and  national  center  for 
Jews  and  Judaism."  2  These  two  quotations  express 
briefly  the  purpose  of  the  Zionist  movement.  In  addi- 
tion, however,  it  does  look  forward  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  Jewish  state  either  entirely  independent  or 
with  a  great  degree  of  autonomy. 

The  boundaries  which  are  proposed  for  this  new 
state  are :  from  the  Mediterranean  on  the  west  to  the 
Jordan  River  or  the  hills  of  Moab  on  the  east;  from 
the  Litany  River  in  the  north  (near  the  city  of  Tyre)( 
to  the  Gulf  of  Akaba  and  the  desert  on  the  south.  This 
district  includes  about  10,000  square  miles,  a  territory 
about  as  large  as  the  state  of  New  Jersey.  Its  popu- 
lation before  the  war  was  700,000,  of  whom  500,000 
were  Arabic-speaking  Mohammedans,  100,000  Ghris- 
tions  of  various  sects  and  nationalities,  and  100,000 
Jews.  The  Zionists  claim  that  experts  who  have 
studied  this  territory  believe  that,  with  careful  and 
scientific  cultivation  and  proper  development  of  its 
natural  resources,  it  is  capable  of  supporting  a  popula- 
tion of  from  five  to  six  million  people.  There  are  in 
the  world  about  thirteen  million  Jews,  but  it  is  not 
anticipated  that  all  Hebrews  will  return  to  this  land. 
It  does,  however,  offer  sufficient  space  for  all  who  wish 
to  seek  a  refuge  and  provides  a  land  where  this  na- 


1  Proclamation  of  First  Zionist  Congress  at  Balse,   1897. 

2  Dr.  Sokoloff  of  the  International  Zionist  Committee. 


46  THE  NEAR  EAST 

tion  can  work  out  its  own  life  and  ideals  along  social, 
political,  and  religious  lines. 

While  the  question  of  the  reestablishment  of  a 
Jewish  state  in  Palestine  makes  a  strong  sentimental 
appeal  to  all  Bible  students,  and  while  shrewd  states- 
men are  hoping  in  this  way  to  settle  the  Hebrew  ques- 
tion in  their  home  lands,  and  while  parliaments  and 
congresses  have  readily  voted  for  this  new  state,  is 
there  not  still  another  side  to  the  question?  One  can 
be  perfectly  sure  that  fulfilment  of  prophecy  will  not 
run  counter  to  simple  Christian  justice.  What  of  the 
rights  of  the  600,000  Arabs  and  Christians  already 
resident  in  this  land,  who  have  made  their  homes  there 
for  centuries?  What  of  the  sacred  associations  of 
the  millions  of  followers  of  the  two  other  faiths?  The 
dominating  Turkish  official  is  gone,  but  the  common 
people  remain.  Is  it  beyond  question  the  part  of  wis- 
dom and  justice  to  give  over  this  land  to  foreigners 
who  will  come  from  every  country  of  Europe,  and 
to  transfer  to  their  hands  the  unrestricted  control  of 
this  sacred  land  and  these  people  who  are  natives  to 
the  soil?  Zionism  avowedly  proposes  to  change  the 
language  of  the  land.  Is  all  this  in  accordance  with 
the  principles  of  self-determination? 

Let  there  be  a  welcome  to  Jewish  immigration,  for 
the  land  is  in  need  of  greater  man  power,  but  let  the 
Jews  come  on  equal  rights  with  the  people  already  in 
the  land.  Let  there  be  a  fair  field  and  no  favors  under 
wisely  determined  supervision. 


Keystone  View  Company 

It  is  "  the  Jews'  wailing  place  " — and  Friday  afternoon,  when 
they  kiss  the  old  foundation  stones  and  pray  that  the  temple 
may  be  restored  to  them 


THE  MINGLING  OF  MANY  NATIONS  47 

The  Persians 

It  was  from  the  land  of  Persia  that  Nehemiah  once 
set  forth  to  rebuild  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  that  Vashti 
braved  the  king's  displeasure  to  save  her  honor,  and 
that  Queen  Esther  begged  for  the  lives  of  her  people. 
Perhaps  to  most  of  us,  our  conception  of  Persia  de- 
pends upon  whether  we  look  at  the  floor  or  the  shelves 
of  our  library;  it  may  mean  to  us  the  land  of  the  beau- 
tiful Shiraz  and  Kermanshah  rugs,  or  the  land  of 
Cyrus  and  Darius  who  dwell  between  the  covers  of  a 
volume  of  history. 

But  whether  it  is  the  historic  or  the  modern  Persia, 
of  which  we  think,  the  nation  is  of  the  same  root  and 
stock  as  the  people  of  Iran  and  Media,  who  maintained 
their  separate  national  existence  for  more  than  a  thou- 
sand years,  who  resisted  mighty  Rome  for  a  full 
century. 

These  are  the  people  who  have  ever  been  famous 
for  their  arts  and  crafts,  for  the  weaving  of  the  most 
beautiful  carpets  in  the  world,  and  for  exquisite  pat- 
terns in  lustre  and  enamel  work  in  vases  and  jars. 
And  with  all  this  craftsmanship,  there  are  practically 
no  factories  in  Persia,  for,  as  in  other  parts  of  the 
Near  East,  all  work  is  individual  and  is  done  by  hand 
in  the  home  and  private  shop. 

The  people  of  Persia  are  of  two  classes,  the  dwellers 
in  tents  and  the  dwellers  in  towns.  One  fifth  of  the 
entire  population  belong  to  the  first  class.  Like  the 
Arab  Bedouins  of  the  desert,  they  lead  a  nomadic  life, 


48  THE  NEAR  EAST 

wandering  about  over  the  steep  hills  and  mountain 
sides  with  their  flocks  and  herds.  The  people  of  the 
towns  cultivate  the  fertile  mountain  valleys,  raising 
delectable  fruits  and  fragrant  flowers,  preparing  vege- 
table dyes,  spinning  and  weaving  wool  and  mohair, 
and  trading  at  home  and  abroad. 

In  636  the  fierce  Moslem  leader  Khalid,  sent  to  the 
Persian  court  this  astounding  message :  "  By  force  or 
good-will  you  shall  accept  our  law,  and  it  shall  be  given 
you  by  men  who  lust  after  death  as  much  as  ye  lust 
after  life."  x  Quickly  following  this,  the  Arabs  forced 
their  faith  upon  the  land  and  gained  possession  of  the 
leather  apron  of  Kavah  the  blacksmith,  which  as  an 
ensign  had  led  the  Persians  to  battle  for  over  a  thou- 
sand years.2  At  the  present  time  nine  tenths  of  all  the 
population  is  Moslem.  The  old  religion  of  Zoroaster 
lingers  in  some  fastnesses,  and  there  are  a  few  hun- 
dred thousand  Eastern  Christians.  Among  these  in 
western  Persia  are  the  Nestorians,  one  of  the  earliest 
of  Christian  sects,  who  have  maintained  themselves 
through  long  centuries  of  Moslem  conquest. 

The  Westerner  on  meeting  the  Persians  has  an  in- 
stinctive racial  feeling  that  here  is  some  one  a  little 
more  akin  to  him  than  the  other  peoples  of  the  East. 
Is  it  a  lost  memory  of  kinship  in  the  Aryan  race?  Or 
is  it  something  in  the  fact  that  they  "  have  never  been 
in  bondage  to  any  man  "  that  appeals  ?  Even  though 
one  may  feel  that  possibly  here  is  a  race  deteriorated, 


1  The  Riddle  of  Nearer  Asia,  page  104. 
*  Story  of  the  Nations,  Persia. 


THE  MINGLING  OF  MANY  NATIONS  49 

he  also  has  the  firm  conviction  that  it  is  "  good  seed." 

The  Egyptians 

From  the  land  of  the  Nile  tourists  bring  home  snap- 
shots of  white-gowned,  dark-hued  servants  who  move 
silently  about  the  corridors  of  hotels;  and  they  buy 
postal  cards  which  show  camels  kneeling  beside  the 
Sphinx  and  Pyramids,  and  donkey  boys  who  race  the 
diminutive  white  asses  through  the  streets  of  Cairo. 
They  can  almost  reproduce  for  you  the  music  of  the 
creaking  wheels  that  lift  the  water  from  irrigating 
ditches  on  to  the  thirsty  fields,  and  they  vividly  de- 
scribe the  mud-walled  houses  and  toiling  fellahin  of 
the  villages  along  the  river. 

But  the  population  of  Egypt  is  not  made  up  entirely 
of  peasants,  donkey  boys,  cameleers,  and  silent  white- 
robed  servants.  There  are  three  classes  of  population 
that  deserve  to  be  noted.  First,  there  is  a  dominating 
official  class  composed  of  foreigners  speaking  a  for- 
eign language  and  having  the  center  of  their  interest, 
perhaps,  in  a  foreign  land.  Until  1914  this  official 
class  was  largely  Turkish,  for,  until  lost  by  the  war, 
Egypt  was  nominally  a  part  of  the  Turkish  Empire. 
Since  then  it  has  become  English.  Lord  Cromer,  when 
speaking  of  the  difficulties  which  confronted  British 
administration,  said  of  this  official  class :  "  No  counter- 
part can  be  found  to  the  special  circumstances  which 
have  attended  the  work  of  Egyptian  reform.  In  the 
first  place,  one  alien  race,  the  English,  have  had  to 
guide  and  control  a  second  alien  race,  the  Turks,  by 


50  THE  NEAR  EAST 

whom  they  are  disliked,  in  the  government  of  a  third 
race,  the  Egyptians.  To  these  latter,  both  the  para- 
mount races  are  to  a  certain  extent  unsympathetic.  In 
the  case  of  the  Turks,  the  want  of  sympathy  has  been 
mitigated  by  habit,  by  a  common  religion,  and  by  the 
use  of  a  common  language.  In  the  case  of  the  Eng- 
lish, it  has  been  mitigated  by  the  respect  due  to  su- 
perior talents  and  by  the  benefits  which  have  accrued 
to  the  population  from  British  interference." 

The  second  class  is  that  of  the  Arab  Moslems 
who  constitute  four  fifths  of  the  entire  population. 
Throughout  history,  conquering  migrations  of  Arab 
people  have  settled  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  The  rich 
corn  lands  of  the  Delta  have  time  and  time  again  at- 
tracted the  sons  of  Shem  from  their  desert  home,  and 
they  have  usurped  this  fruitful  inheritance  of  the  chil- 
dren of  Ham. 

Thirdly  there  are  the  Christian  Copts,  children  of 
the  ancient  Egyptians.  "These  Copts  are  the  direct 
descendants  of  the  men  who  built  the  Pyramids  and 
who,  when  the  rest  of  the  world  was  asleep,  developed 
a  civilization  which  has  been  the  wonder  of  the  ages."  * 

They  have  suffered  probably  more  persecution  from 
the  Mohammedans  than  any  other  Christian  body  ex- 
cept the  Armenians. 

Here,  then,  we  have  the  same  racial  problem  that 
is  met  with  in  all  the  countries  of  the  Near  East, — 
a  mixture  of  race  blended  with  religion;  but  not  re- 
ligion as  we  think  of  it  in  the  West;  it  is  religion  that 

1  The  Lure  of  Africa,  page  45. 


THE  MINGLING  OF  MANY  NATIONS  51 

has  become  as  much  a  part  of  the  racial  element  as  has 
complexion  or  language. 

Moslem  Force  in  Time  of  War 

It  was  in  the  spring  of  1917,  in  a  coast  city  in  Syria, 
that  a  building,  once  the  property  of  the  Sisters  of 
Charity,  was  seized  by  the  Turkish  authorities  and  con- 
verted into  a  school  for  instruction  in  the  making  of 
rugs.  There  had  been  appointed  as  instructors  in  the  art 
of  rug-weaving  perhaps  twenty  Armenian  men,  women, 
and  children  who  had  come  from  their  homes  in  cen- 
tral Asia  Minor,  deported  by  order  of  the  Government. 
They  had  lost  their  all — property,  friends,  families — 
and  at  last  had  been  swept  into  this  quiet  refuge  where 
they  had  shelter,  food,  and  work.  They  were  almost 
happy  after  the  trials  and  sufferings  which  the  past 
twelve  months  had  brought  them.  All  was  going  well 
with  their  industry;  rugs  were  on  the  loom  in  the 
process  of  manufacture;  designs  were  being  worked 
out  by  those  who  had  the  skill;  there  was  peace,  quiet, 
and  rest. 

Suddenly  an  officer  in  uniform  visited  the  place. 
He  called  the  people  together  and  reminded  them  of 
the  sufferings  through  which  they  had  passed,  and 
the  rest  which  they  had  found.  He  told  them  that  this 
and  greater  happiness  would  still  be  theirs  provided 
they  all  became  Mohammedans,  and  that  he  would  call 
for  their  answer  the  following  week.  In  case  of  refusal 
they  would  be  sent  on  again  over  the  mountains  and 
into  the  desert. 


52  THE  NEAR  EAST 

The  little  group  gathered  together  and  talked  the 
matter  over.  They  had  lost  everything  that  life  held 
dear;  they  had  suffered  terrible  hardships  they  could 
not  go  through  it  all  again.  They  decided  that  they 
would  give  a  favorable  answer  to  the  officer  when  he 
returned.  But  the  joy  was  gone  out  of  their  work,  the 
peace  went  from  their  hearts,  and  the  sun  left  their 
sky.  . 

The  seven  days  were  over,  the  officer  was  momen- 
tarily expected,  the  rug-weavers  were  gathered  to- 
gether to  present  their  answer,  when  a  young  man 
arose  in  their  midst.  "  My  friends,"  he  said,  "  it  is 
true  we  have  lost  everything  that  this  world  can  give, 
but  we  have  not  yet  lost  our  faith."  When  the  officer 
arrived,  with  one  accord  the  answer  was  returned, 
"  No,  we  cannot  change  our  faith."  This  group  was 
last  heard  of  somewhere  southeast  of  Damascus. 
They  were  on  their  way  to  the  desert. 

Deportations  and  Massacres 

The  stories  of  Daniel  and  of  the  Maccabees  thrill 
us  because  of  the  constancy  of  the  captive  Hebrews, 
burdened  as  they  were  with  a  tyrant's  yoke.  During 
the  years  of  this  great  war  these  stories  have  been 
repeated  over  and  over  again  in  the  lands  of  Asia 
Minor  and  of  Syria. 

In  the  spring  of  1915  the  Turkish  Government  deter- 
mined upon  a  policy  of  extermination.  First,  the 
Greeks  were  driven  from  the  seacoast.  Then  the  Ar- 


THE  MINGLING  OF  MANY  NATIONS  S3 

menians  from  the  interior  were  deported  from  their 
homes ;  the  men  and  boys  were  cruelly  massacred ;  the 
women  and  children  were  marched  over  mountain  and 
plain, — barefoot,  ragged,  hungry,  and  thirsty, — and 
along  the  way  they  were  robbed,  insulted,  and  outraged. 
Many  fell  by  the  wayside  never  to  rise  again;  many 
threw  themselves  into  the  streams,  unable  longer  to 
endure  the  hardships;  and  the  sad  remnant  at  last 
found  refuge  either  across  the  Russian  border  in  the 
Caucasus,  in  Persia,  or  on  the  great  Syrian  desert. 

At  least  two  and  one  half  millions  of  human  beings, 
who  had  been  Christians  from  the  third  century,  were 
systematically  driven  from  their  homes  and  subjected 
to  these  outrages  and  massacre.  More  than  one  half 
of  them  perished  by  the  way,  and  for  what?  Why 
should  a  government  allow  such  persecutions  for  the 
destruction  of  its  own  people,  and  they  the  most  pro- 
gressive, best  educated,  most  industrious  of  its  citi- 
zens? Was  it  the  desire  for  national  suicide?  Was 
it  religious  fanaticism?  Was  it  to  make  room  for 
other  people? 

No  satisfactory  and  complete  answer  has  ever  been 
given.  The  persecution  was  undoubtedly  political 
rather  than  religious,  although  the  directors  of  it  made 
use  of  the  ignorant  religious  fanaticism  of  the  common 
Turkish  people  and  of  the  soldiery  to  carry  out  their 
terrible  work.  Perhaps  they  were  jealous  of  the  pros- 
perity of  these  Greeks  and  Armenians;  perhaps  they 
were  afraid  that  their  sympathies  would  lead  them  to 
open  revolt  against  authority ;  perhaps  in  their  zeal  for 


54  THE  NEAR  EAST 

an  all-Turkish  state  they  thought  this  the  easiest 
method  of  ridding  themselves  of  other  races;  perhaps 
it  was  to  open  the  country  to  colonization  by  people 
from  Central  Europe.  Probably  it  was  a  combina- 
tion of  all  these  causes  working  together.  But  what- 
ever the  reason,  the  fact  remains  none  the  less  hideous 
and  none  the  less  criminal. 

These  atrocities  were  typical  of  the  whole  history 
of  Turkish  control.  Time  and  time  again  in  the  past, 
Turkish  rulers  have  attempted  to  carry  out  an  ex- 
termination of  people  whom  they  hated  or  feared,  but 
never  before  has  there  been  such  a  systematic,  per- 
sistent, and  thoroughgoing  attempt  as  these  recent 
massacres.  The  Minister  of  the  Interior,  Talaat 
Pasha,  is  said  to  have  boasted  that  he  had  succeeded 
in  doing  in  three  months  what  Abdul  Hamid  failed  to 
do  in  thirty  years.1 

Famine  in  the  Land 

In  a  prosperous  village  in  the  Lebanon  Mountains 
lived  a  master  stone-cutter  with  his  wife  and  five 
stalwart  sons.  For  men  of  their  trade  work  had 
ceased  because,  owing  to  war  conditions,  no  building 
was  being  carried  on.  Food  supplies  were  scarce  and 
prices  exorbitant.  They  had  been  forced  to  mortgage 
their  land  and  even  to  sell  their  furniture.  The  army 
had  taken  their  copper  cooking  utensils,  and  even  the 
beds  had  been  sold  for  food.  A  relief  visitor  came 
to  what  remained  of  this  home.  He  had  been  forbid- 

1  Ambassador  Morgenthaii's  Story,  page  342. 


THE  MINGLING  OF  MANY  NATIONS  55 

den  to  aid  men — only  women  and  children  could  be 
ministered  to.  The  wife  and  mother,  weak  from  dis- 
ease and  starvation,  he  found  lying  on  the  floor,  her 
body  covered  with  ulcers.  In  another  room,  side  by 
side  on  the  floor,  lay  the  master  stone-cutter  and  three 
of  his  sons  with  limbs  swelled,  and  in  the  last  stages 
of  starvation.  Within  a  week  five  new-made  graves 
marked  the  last  resting  place  of  these  industrious  vil- 
lagers. 

Through  the  intervention  of  the  European  powers, 
the  Lebanon  Mountains  for  fifty- five  years  enjoyed  an 
autonomous  government.  It  became  the  one  green 
spot  in  Turkey.  Taxes  were  low,  industry  was  re- 
warded, prosperity  reigned.  A  small  native  gen- 
darme kept  the  district  in  perfect  safety.  Women  and 
children  could  travel  alone  and  go  on  camping  expedi- 
tions throughout  the  mountains  without  fear  of  moles- 
tation. Red-tile-roofed  houses,  splendid  terraces  cov- 
ered with  vines,  olive  and  fig  trees,  vegetable  gardens, 
and  groves  of  mulberries  marked  the  prosperity  that 
had  come  to  this  region. 

Then  came  war.  The  Christian  governor  was  dis- 
missed; a  Turkish  governor  took  his  place;  all  pack 
animals  were  commandeered;  all  food  supplies  were 
placed  under  orders  of  the  governor;  and  this  district 
which  had  never  known  want,  which  had  been  happy 
and  prosperous  became  a  charnal  house.  Some  por- 
tions of  it  lost  sixty  per  cent  of  the  entire  population 
from  disease  and  starvation.  And  this  change  took 
place  in  the  short  term  of  two  years. 


56  THE  NEAR  EAST 

Who  is  Responsible? 

Turkish  inefficiency  and  criminal  indifference  were 
the  causes  of  the  great  famine  that  swept  over  Syria. 
Food  there  was  in  plenty,  but  no  means  of  transporta- 
tion or  system  of  distribution.  While  men  and  women 
and  children  starved  on  the  seacoast,  food  was  being 
exported  to  Germany.  With  such  evident  incom- 
petence, how  was  it  then  possible  to  carry  out  so 
systematic  and  efficient  a  policy  of  destruction  as 
prevailed  in  the  deportation  of  the  Greeks  and  Ar- 
menians? Former  massacres,  while  starting  vigor- 
ously, had  never  lasted  for  more  than  a  few  days — the 
government  and  the  people  easily  wearied  of  bloodshed 
and  loot.  But  this  time  the  atrocities  were  pursued 
to  the  bitter  end.  The  same  hand  that  made  the  Turk- 
ish army  more  efficient  than  it  had  been  for  centuries 
must  also  have  guided  this  policy  of  extermination  and 
carried  it  through,  not  days,  but  months  and  years, 
with  unrelenting  persistence. 

The  Conflict  of  Races 

This  land  of  the  Near  East  ,this  region  of  original 
races,  is  a  corner  of  the  earth  where  people  measure 
residence  not  by  years  but  by  centuries;  where  the 
dawn  of  history  records  the  life  of  the  same  races 
that  are  living  there  to-day. 

These  races  are  as  widely  separated  in  national  char- 
acteristics, language,  and  religious  affiliations  as  are 


THE  MINGLING  OF  MANY  NATIONS  57 

those  who  come  to  America.  From  every  part  of  the 
world  America  gathers  in  her  people,  but  they  come 
as  voluntary  exiles  from  old  homelands,  resolved  to 
make  a  new  life  and  to  become  a  new  people.  They 
face  the  future  with  hearts  full  of  resolve  and  expecta- 
tation.  But  the  Near  East  has  a  polyglot  population 
of  races  who  dwell  in  their  own  homeland,  with  the 
lifelong  associations  of  their  ancient  customs  about 
them.  In  their  relations  to  each  other  they  are  domi- 
nated by  memories  of  old  rivalries,  ancient  feuds, 
former  wrongs,  and  aggressions.  They,  too,  approach 
a  new  day  with  eyes  turned  to  the  future,  but  always 
they  look  through  glasses  colored  with  the  relation- 
ships of  the  past.  It  is  a  problem  of  original  elements 
in  original  surroundings,  of  lives  colored  by  past  ex- 
periences both  bitter  and  sweet,  but  mostly  bitter. 

The  Problem  and  Our  Opportunity 

What  contribution  can  we  make  to  the  solution  of 
this  problem?  It  can  never  be  solved  by  helping  to 
perpetuate  the  native  and  historic  animosities,  by  fos- 
tering the  self-interests  that  divide.  It  will  come 
rather  by  bringing  forward  that  which  will  arouse  a 
common  interest  and  demand  a  common  enthusiasm. 
The  Prophet  of  Mecca  introduced  that  which,  for  a 
time,  bound  the  warring  races  of  Arabia  into  a  united 
body.  But,  while  it  gave  a  common  name,  to  which  all 
still  respond,  it  lacked  that  vital  element  that  could 
sufficiently  transform  selfish  human  nature  and  bind 


58  THE  NEAR  EAST 

every  race  into  one  permanent,  common  brotherhood. 
The  problem  for  the  Near  East  was  nearly  solved  in 
the  first  three  centuries  through  the  fellowship  of  per- 
secution and  sacrifice.  Then  the  light  was  lost  in  a 
strife  for  personal  preferment  and  in  metaphysical 
controversy. 

The  opportunity  has  now  come  anew  when  hearts 
are  grateful  for  suffering  relieved,  when  hands  are 
outstretched  for  help  in  the  grave  hour  of  respon- 
sibility, when  old  relationships  are  broken  down  by  the 
hammer-blows  of  war.  It  is  not  a  time  for  proclaim- 
ing a  church,  there  has  been  too  much  of  that;  but 
it  is  a  time  for  proclaiming  the  cross.  It  is  not  an 
occasion  for  emphasizing  a  creed,  creeds  were  first 
made  by  these  very  people;  but  it  is  a  time  for  pre- 
senting a  living  Christ. 


Ill 

OLD  RELIGIONS  IN  THE  NEW  DAY 


CHAPTER  THREE 

OLD  RELIGIONS  IN  THE  NEW  DAY 

Tj^ROM  remote  antiquity  the  Near  East  has  been 
known  as  the  home  of  religions.  All  of  Egypt's 
ancient  life  centered  about  its  conception  of  the  gods 
and  their  relations  to  men.  The  people  of  Mesopo- 
tamia did  nothing  without  first  reading  the  message 
of  the  stars ;  and  the  Hebrew  prophet  Amos  exclaimed, 
"  Surely  the  Lord  God  will  do  nothing,  but  he  re- 
vealeth  his  secret  unto  his  servants  the  prophets."  To 
the  Eastern  mind  it  is  inconceivable  that  any  person 
should  not  have  a  connection  with  some  religious 
body.  As  the  child  Jesus  was  taken  to  the  temple  to 
be  dedicated  to  the  Lord,  so  by  some  religious  rite 
every  child  that  is  born  in  these  lands  is  attached  in 
his  early  infancy  to  his  parents'  religion. 

The  naturally  religious  temperament  of  the  people 
has  resulted  in  a  degree  of  political  recognition  of  the 
religious  affiliations  of  the  individual  which  it  is  diffi- 
cult for  the  Western  mind  to  appreciate.  The  whole 
population  is  classified  according  to  religion,  and  gov- 
ernments depend  much  upon  officially  recognized  lead- 

61 


62  THE  NEAR  EAST 

ers  of  the  various  religious  groups  for  maintaining 
touch  with  the  people.  The  patriarch,  the  priest,  the 
mullah  serve  their  communities  not  only  as  spiritual 
guides;  they  become  their  representatives  in  the  nego- 
tiation of  business  that  involves  government  action. 
Even  the  Protestant  churches  on  establishing  them- 
selves in  the  Near  East  found  that  they  must  designate 
for  official  purposes  some  member  as  "  head  of  the 
faith."  Because  of  this  intimate  relationship  between 
religion  and  all  other  phases  of  life  in  the  Near  East, 
it  is  necessary  to  review  briefly  the  outstanding  char- 
acteristics of  the,  different  faiths. 

In  the  three  great  religious  groups,  the  Jews,  the 
Mohammedans,  and  the  Christians,  we  recognize  at 
once  their  common  basis  of  monotheism  and  readily 
distinguish  them  from  the  faiths  of  other  lands  where 
the  worship  of  idols  and  the  placating  of  many  spirits 
furnish  the  background  of  religious  life.  Our  con- 
cern here  is  to  study  the  influences  of  these  great 
religions  upon  the  daily  life  of  their  followers,  to  dis- 
tinguish the  many  sects  which  appear  within  the 
various  groups,  and  to  trace  the  new  movements  in 
religious  thought  which  are  running  through  the  Near 
East  to-day. 

..  The  Jews 

To  Bible  students  it  is  not  necessary  to  record  those 
things  for  which  Judaism  stood  in  ancient  times,  nor 
to  discuss  them  in  their  modern  phases.  The  Jew  holds 
tenaciously  to  the  faith  of  his  fathers,  with  its  restric- 


OLD  RELIGIONS  IN  THE  NEW  DAY  63 

tions  and  burden  of  religious  regulations.  The  feasts 
and  the  fasts  and  the  keeping  of  the  Sabbath  are 
rigorously  observed.  Religious  life  centers  about  the 
synagogue,  where  one  may  see  Jewish  tradition  and 
custom  carefully  preserved  and  differing  little  from 
that  of  the  days  of  the  New  Testament. 

It  would  sometimes  seem  that  we  forget  that  Chris- 
tianity came  to  us  through  the  Jewish  people;  that 
Jesus  of  Nazareth  was  born  a  Jew,  as  were  also  his 
twelve  disciples;  and  the  great  apostle  to  the  Gentiles 
boasted  of  his  Hebrew  ancestry.1 

It  is  a  fact  that  the  Jews  have  always  received  good 
treatment  from  the  rulers  of  the  Moslem  lands — far 
better  than  from  the  government  of  the  Christian  na- 
tions of  Europe. 

Although  divided  by  the  rivalries  of  bigoted  sects, 
the  Eastern  Jews  share  in  common  an  intense  longing 
for  the  return  to  them  of  their  shrines  in  the  city  of 
Jerusalem.  They  are  still  holding  fast  to  the  past  and 
lamenting  the  glories  departed,  while  straining  their 
eyes  to  catch  a  glimpse  of  the  coming  of  the  "  kingdom 
of  God  "  in  the  person  of  the  Messiah. 

The  Mohammedans 

The  history  of  the  remarkable  religious  movement 
among  the  Arabs  of  the  desert  which  developed  into 
the  religion  of  Islam  is  of  intense  interest.  Recent 
studies  have  made  familiar  to  wide  circles  of  Western 

1  The  Riddle  of  Nearer  Asia,  pages  43-51;  Chapter  VII. 


64  THE  NEAR  EAST 

readers  the  fact  of  the  extraordinary  spread  of  this 
religion  to  the  nations  of  northern  and  central  Africa, 
of  western  Asia,  and  of  eastern  Europe. 

To  speculate  upon  what  might  have  been  the  result 
had  Mohammed  lived  in  the  day  when  he  could  have 
been  brought  into  contact  with  St.  Paul  or  Stephen  or 
John  of  Damascus,  excites  one's  curiosity.1  Had  he 
found  in  Arabia  and  Palestine  a  purer  type  than  ex- 
isted there  at  that  time,  might  he  not  have  become  a 
great  apostle  of  Jesus  Christ  to  the  tribes  of  the 
desert  ? 

The  forms  of  faith  which  he  did  encounter  were  not 
such  as  to  give  him  the  pure  religious  conception  for 
which  his  soul  longed,  and  which  he  seemed  to  find  in 
his  ecstatic  visions  on  the  mountain-top  and  in  the 
desert. 

So  there  was  born  into  the  world  a  new  form 
of  religion,  a  form  which  believed  intensely  in  its 
founder  and  his  teachings,  and  which  determined  to 
spread  its  faith  at  all  hazards  among  all  people. 

The  extent  of  Mohammedanism,  its  religious  zeal 
and  fanaticism,  and  its  missionary  energy  make  it  the 
great  rival  of  the  Christian  faith.  It  is  the  one  great 
missionary  religion  which,  bearing  so  many  charac- 
teristics almost  identical  with  Christianity,  is  the  hard- 
est problem  that  the  church  of  Christ  has  ever  been 
called  upon  to  solve.  What  is  the  best  method  of 
approach?  Is  it  that  of  controversy  and  attack,  or 
is  it  rather  the  recognition  of  a  religious  impulse,  ap- 

1  Christian  Approach  to  Islam,  pages  253-4. 


OLD  RELIGIONS  IN  THE  NEW  DAY  65 

preciation  of  its  worth,  and  realization  of  its  pos- 
sibilities ? 

Mohammedan  Sects 

"  My  people  will  be  divided  into  seventy-three  sects; 
every  one  of  which  will  go  to  hell  except  one  sect,"  said 
Mohammed. 

Mohammedanism,  therefore,  is  not  one  united  re- 
ligion, but  is  divided  into  almost  as  many  divisions  as 
is  the  Christian  faith.  There  are,  however,  two  main 
branches:  first,  the  ]Sunnis,  who  are  known  as  the 
Orthodox  Moslems  and  to  whom  belong  the  Turks, 
Arabs,  and  Egyptians.  These  look  upon  Mecca  as 
their  sacred  shrine,  and  it  is  the  place  to  which  the  an- 
nual pilgrimage  is  directed.  Second,  the  Shi'ahs,  or 
followers  of  Ali,  the  son-in-law  of  Mohammed.  They 
look  upon  their  leader  as  a  martyr  and  believe  him  to 
be  the  legitimate  successor  to  the  Caliphate.  This 
branch  of  Mohammedanism  is  found  largely  through- 
out Persia,  but  there  are  also  members  in  other  por- 
tions of  Mohammedan  lands.  Their  holy  shrine  is  at 
Kerbela,  west  of  Baghdad,  where  the  son  of  Ali  lies 
buried. 

Of  minor  sects  there  have  been  many  that  have  risen, 
followed  some  leader  for  a  time,  and  disappeared, 
just  as  sects  in  Christianity  have  done  throughout  the 
years.  Some  of  these  have  been  largely  of  political 
origin,  as  the  order  of  the  Assassins,  followers  of 
the  "  Sheikh-ul-Jebel,"  or  "  The  Old  Man  of  the  Moun- 
tains "  which  exercised  a  reign  of  terror  over  Moslem 


66  THE  NEAR  EAST 

and  Christian  alike  throughout  Persia,  Turkey,  and 
Egypt.  This  sect  has  now  practically  died  out.  Other 
divisions  have  been  of  religious  aim,  as  the  Wahabis 
of  Arabia,  who  sought  to  reform  Islam  by  a  return  to 
the  primitive  practises  of  the  early  days. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  two  or  three  so-called 
heretical  sects  which  deserve  mention.  The  Bahai 
originated  in  Persia,  and  has  gained  many  followers 
not  only  in  the  land  of  its  birth,  but  it  has  found 
adherents  even  in  America,  especially  among  those 
triflers  and  idlers  whose  habit  it  is  to  seek  that  which 
is  new  and  unusual.  The  founder  of  this  sect  claims 
that  from  time  to  time  God  has  found  it  necessary  to 
reveal  himself  through  some  human  being.  The  line 
has  been  Moses,  Jesus,  Mohammed,  and  in  these  latter 
days,  himself,  Bahah-Allah,  "  The  Glory  of  God."  He 
has  sought  to  combine  "  the  best  things  "  from  Chris- 
tianity, Mohammedanism,  and  Zoroastrianism.  He 
lays  special  stress  on  the  universal  brotherhood  of  men. 
The  head  of  the  sect,  Abbas  Effendi,  until  recently  a 
Turkish  political  prisoner,  now  resides  in  Acre,  Pales- 
tine, where  the  grave  of  his  father,  the  founder  of 
the  order,  is  located. 

There  are  two  interesting  secret  sects  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Syria  numbering  some  two  hundred  thousand 
each.  In  northern  Syria  are  the  Nusariyeh  who  retain 
certain  heathen  rites,  as  the  worship  of  the  sun  and 
moon. 

In  the  southern  Lebanon  and  south  of  Damascus 
are  the  Druses.  On  Thursday  nights  one  may  see  the 


OLD  RELIGIONS  IN  THE  NEW  DAY  67 

men  of  this  order  filing  away  to  some  lonely  hilltop 
where  is  located  the  place  of  their  worship.  There 
are  forms  of  initiation  by  which  the  young  men  are 
inducted  into  the  mysteries  of  the  cult.  The  common 
people  of  this  sect  are  supposed  to  have  little  to  do 
with  the  practises  of  their  religion;  only  those  who 
have  passed  through  a  long  course  of  instruction  at- 
tend to  the  rites  and  ceremonies;  but  to  these  leaders 
the  people  are  taught  implicit  obedience.  The  Druse 
can  be  all  things  to  all  men  and  may  profess  any  re- 
ligion he  pleases  so  long  as  he  fulfils  his  secret  vows 
of  Druse  loyalty.  It  is,  perhaps,  more  like  a  secret 
fraternal  order  than  a  religious  sect. 

Five  Religion  Duties  of  Islam 

Islam  requires  of  every  follower  the  observance  of 
five  religious  duties.  If  Christians  had  observed  the 
simple  instructions  of  their  Master  as  faithfully  as 
these  five  injunctions  have  been  followed,  it  would  be 
a  different  world  to-day.  The  five  requirements  are: 
Confession  of  the  creed,  "  There  is  no  God  but  God, 
and  Mohammed  is  God's  Apostle  " ;  Prayer,  which  has 
as  a  necessary  preliminary  certain  legal  purifications 
and  is  supposed  to  be  performed  five  times  a  day;  Fast- 
ing, especially  during  the  month  of  Ramadan  through- 
out which  the  fast  lasts  each  day  from  dawn  to  sunset; 
Alms,  the  required  amount  varying  in  different  sects 
but  averaging  about  one  fortieth  of  the  income; 
Pilgrimage,  incumbent  on  every  Moslem  who  is 


68  THE  NEAR  EAST 

of  age  and  who  has  sufficient  means  for  the  journey.1 
These  duties  are  observed  by  the  devout  Moslem, 
but  it  is  noticeable  that  there  is  a  growing  indifference 
to  them  and  to  other  requirements  of  the  sacred  law. 
One  earnest  Mohammedan  who  lived  near  us  in  Syria 
was  filled  with  grief  as  the  sufferings  during  the  war 
increased.  "  This  has  all  come  upon  us  because  of  our 
sins,"  he  was  accustomed  to  say.  "  The  mosque  is 
empty  at  the  hour  of  prayer,  and  men  are  more  inter- 
ested in  making  money  than  in  keeping  the  laws  of 
God." 

How  can  these  various  sects  and  secret  orders  be 
best  approached,  and  what  will  be  most  effective  in 
awakening  them  to  a  sense  of  the  need  of  personal 
relationship  to  a  Heavenly  Father  and  in  demonstrat- 
ing the  supremacy  of  Jesus'  revelation  of  Him?2 

This  is  another  great  problem  to  be  solved  by  the 
missionaries  whose  lot  is  cast  among  the  Moham- 
medans. 

The  Christians 

Half-way  between  the  cities  of  Aleppo  and  Antioch 
are  the  ruins  of  a  beautiful  Christian  church.  It  was 
built  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  and  under  the  ruined 
dome  there  stands  the  pedestal  of  a  great  pillar.  This 
pillar  rose  seventy  feet  in  height,  was  four  feet  in 
diameter,  and  on  the  top  of  it,  for  thirty  years,  lived 
the  hermit  Simon,  familiar  in  history  as  Simon 

1  The  Nearer  and  Farther  East,  pages  24-8. 

2  The  Lure  of  Africa,  Chapter  II. 


OLD  RELIGIONS  IN  THE  NEW  DAY  69 

Stylites.  Here  he  spent  his  life,  day  and  night,  sum- 
mer and  winter,  in  storm  and  sunshine.  He  preached 
to  the  people  and  prayed  for  their  sins  and  was  the 
object  of  veneration  far  and  near.  He  was  the 
founder  of  the  peculiar  order  or  sainthood  known  as 
the  "  Pillar  Saints,"  which  spread  throughout  northern 
Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and  even  into  southern  and  west- 
ern Europe. 

This  is  illustrative  of  the  religious  fervor  which 
laid  hold  upon  the  people  of  those  early  Christian  cen- 
turies and  not  only  made  of  them  theological  experts, 
but  induced  them  to  offer  their  all,  despite  hardship 
and  privation,  for  the  advancement  of  the  religious 
life  as  they  conceived  it. 

But  the  customs  and  beliefs  which  have  grown  up 
about  the  Eastern  church  because  of  its  environment 
are  as  widely  separated  from  our  Western  conception 
of  a  Christian  church  as  are  the  social  usages  of  the 
East  and  the  West. 

When  the  great  church  councils  were  called  by  the 
Emperor  Constantine  and  his  successors,  there  was 
but  one  church  universal,  just  emerged  from  long  and 
severe  persecution  and  from  conflict  with  paganism. 
But  soon  the  growing  importance  of  the  Church  of 
Rome  and  the  continued  importance  of  the  Church  of 
Constantinople,  together  with  doctrinal  differences, 
caused  a  split  between  the  churches  of  the  East  and 
West.  The  churches  of  Asia  Minor  and  Macedonia, 
to  whom  St.  Paul  addressed  his  epistles,  are  the  direct 
ancestors  of  the  Eastern  church,  which  has  survived 


70  THE  NEAR  EAST 

as  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church  of  to-day.  To  this 
church  are  attached  the  national  churches  of  all  the 
Balkan  States,  of  Russia,  of  the  Greeks  throughout 
Asia  Minor,  and  a  large  share  of  the  Christians  of 
Syria. 

This  Greek  Orthodox  Church  differs  from  the 
Church  of  Rome  in  certain  matters  of  doctrine  and 
practise;  as,  for  example,  in  the  Greek  churches  there 
are  no  images,  only  pictures;  the  clergy  are  permitted 
to  marry;  often  some  worthy  man  of  the  village,  whom 
the  people  have  learned  to  trust,  and  to  look  upon  as 
a  religious  leader,  is  chosen  as  village  priest 

Other  Christian  sects  of  these  lands  are  named  either 
from  their  founder  or  from  the  people  among  whom 
they  flourish.  There  is  the  Armenian  National 
Church,  to  which  the  great  bulk  of  the  Armenian 
people  belong,  the  Armenian  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
a  product  of  the  early  Jesuit  French  missions,  which 
has  about  150,000  adherents,  and  the  Armenian  Evan- 
gelical Church  with  a  constituency  of  about  100,000. 

Another  sect  is  the  Nestorian,  or  Assyrian  Church 
of  eastern  Kurdistan  and  western  Persia  was  founded 
by  Nestorius.  He  was  branded  as  a  heretic  by  the 
early  church  councils,  but  his  followers  have  held  firm 
to  their  simple  Christian  faith  through  centuries  of 
bitter  persecution.  The  Copts  of  Egypt,  who  received 
their  name  from  an  old  Arabic  word  for  Egypt,  claim 
to  have  been  founded  by  St.  Mark.  In  most  particu- 
lars their  church  is  identical  with  the  Greek  Orthodox. 
They  have  suffered  much  at  the  hands  of  the  Moslem 


71 

Arab  invaders,  but  in  spite  of  this  they  have  remained 
the  best  educated  and  most  progressive  portion  of  the 
population  of  Egypt. 

In  the  northern  Lebanon  Mountains  there  is  a  group 
of  sturdy,  vigorous  mountaineer  Christians  numbering 
perhaps  three  hundred  thousand,  who  are  known  as 
the  Maronites.  They  are  named  from  their  founder 
and  leader  Maron,  who  lived  about  the  eighth  cen- 
tury. Now,  however,  they  recognize  the  Pope  as  head 
of  the  church  and  are,  therefore,  counted  as  a  part 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  fold.  But  they  differ  in  many 
particulars  from  the  Roman  Catholic  Church;  as,  for 
example,  in  the  marriage  of  the  clergy  and  in  the  use 
of  pictures  rather  than  images.  They  are  very  bigoted 
in  their  faith  and  represent  the  most  illiterate  part  of 
the  Syrian  Christians.  They  have  their  own  patriarch, 
who  resides  in  the  Lebanon,  and  their  connection  with 
Rome  is  more  nominal  than  real.  Daring  the  past 
few  years  the  Maronites  have  been  especially  under 
the  protection  of  France,  and  it  is  this  relation  which 
has  constituted  the  chief  claim  of  France  to  Syria  as 
a  colony. 

Loss  of  Christians  to  Reconstruction 

Before  the  war  the  population  of  the  Turkish 
Empire  was  about  twenty  millions.  Of  this  number 
probably  three  fourths  were  Mohammedans  and  one 
fourth  Christians.  In  Persia  the  Christians  constitute 
but  one  tenth  of  the  total  population.  The  adversi- 
ties of  war  have  fallen  most  heavily  upon  the  Christian 


72  THE  NEAR  EAST 

portion  of  these  countries.  The  Armenians  were  all 
but  exterminated,  the  Greeks  were  deported  and  per- 
secuted, and  it  was  among  the  Christians  in  Syria  and 
Persia  that  the  famine  was  most  severe.  While  a 
large  number  of  the  Mohammedan  population  perished 
from  disease  and  famine  and  war,  yet  a  much  larger 
percentage  of  Christians  succumbed. 

As  the  Christians  have  always  constituted  the  most 
progressive  and  industrious  peoples  of  the  East,  this 
loss  will  be  felt  keenly  in  the  near  future.  In  the  work 
of  reorganization  and  reconstruction  that  is  now  tak- 
ing place,  the  greatest  problem  is  that  of  man-power, 
and  these  Eastern  lands  could  ill  afford  to  lose  so 
great  a  number  from  among  the  most  energetic  and 
progressive  of  their  peoples. 

The  Religious  Temperament 

The  Apostle  Paul,  speaking  to  the  men  of  Athens, 
said,  "  I  perceive  that  in  all  things  ye  are  very  re- 
ligious," or  as  the  revised  version  has  it,  "  too  super- 
stitious." But  it  is  true  that  the  point  where  religion 
ends  and  superstition  begins  is  very  difficult  to  locate, 
and  there  are  many  contributing  causes  to  the  sus- 
ceptibility of  Eastern  peoples  to  a  religion  which 
merges  into  a  superstition. 

It  was  from  these  Eastern  people  that  we  received 
the  splendid  visions  and  messages  of  the  prophets,  the 
psalmists,  the  apostles,  and  of  Christ  himself.  Though 
they  do  not  think  with  the  logic  of  the  Western  mind, 


OLD  RELIGIONS  IN  THE  NEW  DAY  73 

their  mystical  temperament  brings  them  into  conscious 
relation  with  the  Unseen.  Says  Lord  Cromer,  "  I 
have  lived  too  long  in  the  East  not  to  be  aware  that 
it  is  difficult  for  any  European  to  arrive  at  a  true 
estimate  of  Oriental  wishes,  aspirations,  and  opin- 
ions; "  and  again  he  says,  "  The  want  of  mental  sym- 
metry and  precision  is  the  chief  distinguishing  feature 
between  the  illogical  and  picturesque  East  and  the 
logical  West,  and  which  lends  such  peculiar  interest  to 
the  study  of  Eastern  life  and  politics;  the  fact  that 
religion  enters  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  Europe  into 
the  social  life  and  laws  and  customs  of  the  people."  1 

The  languages  of  the  East  are  rich  in  their  re- 
ligious expressions.  For  example,  the  Arabic  is  said 
to  have  ninety-nine  names  for  God,  and  the  Armenian 
language  is  particularly  well-suited  for  the  expression 
of  religious  and  spiritual  ideas. 

In  the  common  oaths  and  curses  of  the  country  the 
name  of  the  Deity  does  not  appear  as  it  does  in  the 
West.  Of  course  in  the  legal  oath  the  people  swear 
by  God,  by  the  Prophet,  by  the  Messiah,  and  by  every- 
thing that  is  sacred ;  but  in  the  East  one's  ears  are  not 
continually  shocked  as  they  are  in  America.  The 
old  commandment,  "  Thou  shalt  not  take  the  name  of 
the  Lord  thy  God  in  vain  "  seems  to  be  written  in  the 
very  primary  consciousness  of  these  naturally  reverent 
people  of  the  East. 

The  name  of  God  is  frequently  used  in  common 
conversation,  however.  When  a  child  or  a  beautiful 

1  Political  and  Literary  Essays,  Vol.  I,  page  7. 


74  THE  NEAR  EAST 

horse  or  any  of  the  domestic  animals  is  admired,  the 
name  of  God  is  mentioned  by  some  member  of  the 
company.  This  is  supposed  to  break  the  charm  of  any 
evil  purpose  or  evil  eye,  which  the  admirer  might  even 
unintentionally  be  casting  upon  the  thing  admired. 
The  power  of  the  evil  eye  is  most  firmly  believed  in 
by  the  people,  whether  Christians,  Moslems,  or  Jews. 
They  hold  that  there  are  certain  people  who,  by  the 
mere  glance  of  the  eye,  have  power  to  bring  evil  to 
those  they  look  upon.  They  will  relate  endless  stories 
of  cases  they  have  known  where  sickness  or  even  death 
has  been  brought  about  by  the  casting  of  the  evil  eye. 

The  name  of  God  is  often  used  in  giving  names  to 
children,  or  it  is  compounded  with  some  other  word 
such  as  "  the  servant  of  God,"  or  "  the  goodness  of 
God,"  or  "  the  glory  of  God."  On  the  other  hand, 
if  a  number  of  children  in  a  family  have  died,  a  new 
child  will  be  given  the  name  of  "  wolf  "  or  "  leopard  " 
or  "  lion  "  or  "  bear  "  with  the  idea  that  the  animal's 
name  will  act  as  a  charm  and  some  special  spirit  will 
watch  over  it  and  protect  it.  Sometimes  a  child  is  so 
named  to  fool  the  evil  spirits  into  overlooking  it, 
where  a  charming  name  might  otherwise  attract  them. 
So  here  we  have  the  religious  instinct  closely  allied 
with  the  superstitious. 

Many  religious  ceremonies  are  almost  identical, 
whether  in  Christian,  or  Moslem,  or  Jewish  families. 
Little  children  are  surrounded  with  these  rites  almost 
from  the  time  of  their  birth.  One  example  of  this  is 
observed  in  the  baptism  of  the  child,  when  it  may  be 


OLD  RELIGIONS  IN  THE  NEW  DAY  75 

given  some  special  saint's  name.  Thereafter  the 
birthday  of  the  child  is  not  especially  remembered,  but 
the  child  always  observes  as  a  name-day  the  particular 
calendar  day  devoted  to  that  saint.  In  other  religions 
the  rite  of  circumcision  may  take  the  place  of  bap- 
tism, and  it  has  the  same  religious  significance,  whether 
it  be  observed  in  a  Moslem  or  a  Jewish  family. 

The  use  of  charms  is  very  common,  not  only  for 
the  protection  of  children  against  diseases  and  acci- 
dent, but  also  for  the  protection  of  domestic  animals. 
Every  horse  has  a  blue  bead  in  its  tail,  a  donkey  will 
have  a  string  of  blue  beads  about  its  neck,  and  gen- 
erally a  child  will  have  a  blue  bead  somewhere  about 
its  person.  It  is  because  blue  eyes  are  believed  to 
have  a  specially  evil  influence  that  a  blue  bead  is  the 
favorite  charm.  Blue-eyed  people  are  quite  generally 
dreaded,  and  the  blue  bead  is  intended  as  a  rough 
representation  of  the  eye  that  causes  the  mischief. 
With  this  belief  in  the  evil  eye,  of  course  charms  and 
vows  are  necessarily  connected  as  counterfoils. 

In  many  parts  of  the  East  there  are  sacred  trees. 
Frequently  these  are  oaks  growing  beside  the  grave 
of  some  venerated  saint  or  on  some  spot  which  has 
become  a  sacred  shrine.  To  the  boughs  of  these  trees 
rags  are  tied  in  evidence  of  a  vow  having  been  per- 
formed, a  vow  to  secure  some  special  favor  of  health 
or  success  or  safety,  and  it  includes  a  future  bestowal 
of  some  gift  to  the  poor  or  the  church  or  the  shrink. 
Instances  are  common  of  Christians  and  non-Chris- 
tians coming  to  the  same  shrine  and  making  their  vows 


76  THE  NEAR  EAST 

i 

with  the  tying  of  a  rag  or  the  offering  of  a  jar  of 
oil.  These  customs,  of  course,  are  not  original  with 
either  Christian  or  Mohammedan  faith,  but  take  one 
back  to  the  days  of  the  primitive  religions  of  these 
countries. 

Many  of  the  ancient  forms  date  back  to  the  days 
of  the  Baal  worship.  Baal  was  not  a  universal  God 
such  as  Jehovah,  but  a  name  applied  to  the  spirit  of 
each  particular  locality  who  was  thought  to  be  dwell- 
ing in  some  fountain  or  tree  or  in  the  fertile  soil. 
Each  locality  had  its  own  local  spirit,  the  precise  form 
of  worship  of  which  has  been  handed  down  from 
generation  to  generation. 

Belief  in  the  Nearness  of  God 

In  the  Eastern  mind  there  is  a  far  more  lively  sense 
of  the  nearness  of  the  Unseen  and  of  man's  ability  to 
realize  that  Unseen  than  is  true  in  our  Western 
thought.  The  Unseen  is  an  actual  reality  to  them, 
an  ever  present  influence  in  their  daily  life.  Whether 
it  takes  the  form  of  religious  ecstacy,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  prophet  Mohammed,  or  of  secret  contempla- 
tion and  prayer  in  the  monastic  cell,  or  the  ignorant 
fear  of  a  local  spirit  for  good  or  evil  resident  in  some 
fountain  or  stream  or  wave  of  the  sea,  it  is  all  a  part 
of  their  keen  sense  of  the  release  of  spiritual  power. 
To  them  the  life  of  contemplation  is  natural.  This 
is  seen  in  both  the  Christian  and  Mohammedan  re- 
ligions, and  in  this  aspect  these  two  religions  differ 


OLD  RELIGIONS  IN  THE  NEW  DAY  77 

very  little  one  from  the  other;  but  they  have  different 
outlets  of  the  same  religious  aspiration.1 

Some  years  ago  the  author  visited  a  cave,  high  up 
on  the  side  of  a  mountain  in  Syria.  A  rude  door 
gave  entrance.  Within,  there  was  a  rough  couch  hewn 
out  of  the  rock  of  the  mountain,  and  upon  it  lay  a  bed, 
a  human  skull,  and  a  few  simple  cooking  utensils.  For 
eighteen  years  this  had  been  the  home  of  a  Christian 
hermit.  A  little  garden  on  a  terrace  in  front  of  the 
cave  supplied  recreation  and  exercise  for  the  holy  man. 
There  he  raised  a  few  lentils  and  onions  which  were 
his  chief  articles  of  food.  At  the  near-by  monastery 
he  was  revered  as  a  saint,  and  all  the  people  of  the 
country  round  about  believed  that  in  his  retirement 
from  the  world  and  in  his  life  of  solitary  contempla- 
tion he  was  able  to  draw  near  to  God  in  an  especial 
way. 

The  mountains  and  rocky  ravines  of  all  these  East- 
ern lands  have  in  times  past  been  the  homes  of  many 
ascetics  who,  by  their  lives  of  self-denial,  have  sought 
for  themselves  greater  spiritual  insight  and  have  been 
believed  by  the  people  to  be  special  servants  of  God. 
The  deserts  of  Egypt,  the  limestone  cliffs  of  Syria, 
and  the  high  plateaus  and  mountain-tops  of  Mesopo- 
tamia and  Armenia,  have  all  been  the  haunts  of  such 
hermits,  and  the  monasteries  which  are  still  scattered 
throughout  these  lands  testify  to  the  belief  that  with- 
drawal from  the  world  promotes  the  highest  religious 
life. 

1  Aspects  of  Islam,  Chapters  V  and  VI. 


78  THE  NEAR  EAST 

The  minds  of  the  people  are  by  nature  fitted  for 
religious  conceptions.  They  see  spiritual  powers  in 
the  stars  of  heaven  at  night,  in  the  sun  and  the  moon, 
in  the  life-giving  contact  of  water  and  soil,  in  the 
fire  that  consumes  and  also  cooks,  in  the  storm,  and  in 
the  desert  calm.  These  aspirations  have  found  expres- 
sion in  various  forms  in  times  past :  in  the  fire  worship 
and  contest  of  light  and  darkness  of  the  Persians;  in 
the  worship  of  the  river  Nile,  in  the  Baals  of  Syria, 
and  in  the  mysterious  mountain-top  abodes  of  the  gods 
of  the  Greeks. 

.  Communion  Expressed  in  Rituals 

This  same  spirit  has  developed  the  expressive  and 
beautiful  rituals  of  the  religions  of  the  East,  which  are 
probably  the  most  natural  expression  of  the  people. 
The  Hebrews  worked  out  for  their  temple  a  religious 
expression  in  every  form  and  ceremony,  in  the  gar- 
ments of  the  priests,  and  in  the  vessels  which  were 
used.  So,  too,  did  the  churches  of  these  Eastern 
lands:  the  robes  and  censors,  the  altars  and  candles, 
the  curtains  and  pictures, — each  is  an  expression  of 
the  innate  desire  for  ceremonial  worship.  Yet  along- 
side of  this  seemingly  natural  ritualistic  worship 
there  has  also  existed  an  almost  puritanical  simplicity; 
as,  for  example,  may  be  noted  in  the  synagogues  of 
the  Jews  and  to  some  extent  in  the  services  in  the 
Mohammedan  mosques.  There  seems  to  have  been  a 
feeling  that  the  ritual  tended  to  conceal  rather  than 
to  reveal  the  spiritual,  and  there  has  been  in  many 


Underwood  and  Underwood 


The  Arab  is  a  born  nomad.  This  camp  at  the  foot  of  Mt. 
Sinai,  with  its  little  black  tents,  is  characteristic.  The  family 
and  the  flock  are  unhampered  by  neighborhood  conventions 


OLD  RELIGIONS  IN  THE  NEW  DAY  79 

cases  a  desire  to  break  through  formalities  and  to 
come  at  once  in  direct  contact  with  the  great  Father 
of  mankind. 

Counteracting  Influences 

In  considering  the  Eastern  churches  one  must  re- 
member two  things  which  have  had  direct  influence 
upon  religion.  The  first  is  the  dense  ignorance  which 
has  prevailed  among  the  people.  Until  very  recently 
there  were  few  who  could  even  read  or  write.  Per- 
haps not  more  than  ten  per  cent  of  the  total  popula- 
tion of  all  these  lands  could  sign  their  own  names  or 
read  a  page  from  a  simple  book.  This  ignorance  pre- 
vailed not  only  on  the  part  of  the  people,  but  it  in- 
volved the  clergy  in  the  churches  as  well.  Frequently, 
the  priest  was  the  only  person  in  the  village  who  could 
read  at  all ;  often  he  could  read  nothing  except  the 
service,  and  that  was  written  in  a  tongue  not  his  own 
and  was  not  understood  by  the  people.  Of  course  in 
the  great  church  centers  such  as  Cairo,  Smyrna,  and 
Constantinople  there  was  a  better  situation,  but 
throughout  these  countries  as  a  whole,  especially  in 
the  villages  of  the  mountains  and  the  interior  valleys, 
this  dense  ignorance  was  common. 

The  second  influence  which  has  prevailed  to  cor- 
rupt religion  has  been  the  connection  of  the  church 
with  the  governing  bodies  of  the  lands.  All  of  these 
Eastern  lands  came  under  Moslem  sway,  and  it  was/ 
the  custom  of  these  conquerors  to  give  their  Christian 
subjects  a  choice  of  death  or  tribute.  The  latter  being 


80  THE  NEAR  EAST 

chosen,  the  head  of  the  church  then  became  respon- 
sible to  the  government  for  the  collection  and  pay- 
ment of  this  tribute  and  for  the  negotiation  of  all 
questions  of  a  political  character  which  arose  within 
his  communion.  Moreover,  the  Moslem  ruler  held  the 
right  to  approve  the  appointment  of  the  head  of  the 
Christian  churches.  The  result  can  readily  be  seen: 
the  intrigue,  the  desire  for  personal  preferment,  the 
attempt  to  retain  the  good  favor  of  the  ruler,  the 
rivalries  for  positions  of  power  and  influence,  whether 
at  the  capital  or  even  in  the  country  diocese,  naturally 
brought  corruptive  influences. 

These  two  elements  have  cooperated  to  make  the 
churches  unworthy  vessels  of  the  rich  treasure  with 
which  they  were  entrusted.  "  A  church  without  a 
Bible,  with  an  ignorant  priesthood,  with  no  religious 
instruction,  and  no  test  for  church  membership  could 
not  be  ^expected  in  any  land  or  in  any  age  to  keep 
itself  unspotted  from  the  world.  Under  these  condi- 
tions Christianity  came  to  be  largely  a  name,  and  the 
practises  of  religion  only  a  form."  1 

Splendid  Exceptions 

This  state  of  religion  applies  to  the  Eastern  churches 
in  general.  There  are,  of  course,  splendid  exceptions 
to  the  rule:  priests  and  bishops  who  are  well-educated 
and  truly  spiritually  minded;  people  who  maintain  a 
beautiful  religious  life  and  who  live  very  near  to  the 

1  Daybreak  in  Turkey,  page  104. 


OLD  RELIGIONS  IN  THE  NEW  DAY  81 

Kingdom,  whose  lives  in  any  land  and  among  any 
people  are  a  true  reflection  of  the  Master  whose  chil- 
dren they  are  and  whom  they  serve.  But  these  are 
rare  exceptions,  for,  as  a  whole,  the  Eastern  churches 
are  dead  in  fanaticism  and  formalism. 

Christianity's  Influence  on  Islam 

Such  being  the  case,  what  influence  could  the  church 
exert  upon  the  rising  power  of  Mohammedanism? 
Islam  has  never  come  in  contact  with  a  vital  Chris- 
tianity. The  Eastern  churches  have  not  shown  suffi- 
cient devotion  to  their  Master  and  have  never  lived 
sufficiently  in  accordance  with  His  teachings  to  have 
impressed  their  Moslem  neighbors  with  any  superior 
type  of  religion.  All  of  Islam's  contact  with  the  Chris- 
tian world  has  been  with  sects  largely  lacking  in  the 
spirit  of  Christ.  The  Crusades  were  a  fanatic  attempt 
at  military  conquest;  European  nations  have  sought 
political  and  commercial  domination;  what  must  the 
Moslems  think  of  the  present  so-called  Christian  na- 
tions of  Europe  plunging  the  world  into  the  greatest 
fraternal  strife  that  history  has  ever  recorded,  delug- 
ing the  nations  with  blood  and  injustice  and  wrong?  * 

Religion's  Broken  Barriers 

It  is  plainly  to  be  seen  that  all  the  influences  that 
have  been  brought  to  bear  on  these  Near  Eastern  lands  / 
have  been  disrupting  influences.     The  schemes   and 

1  The  Riddle   of  Nearer  Asia,   pages  85-95. 


82  THE  NEAR  EAST 

ambitions  of  foreign  nations  have  tended  to  political 
divisions;  the  ancient  racial  traditions  have  tended  to 
produce  a  multitude  of  tiny  nationalisms;  and  the 
religious  history  has  torn  people  asunder  and  divided 
them  into  sects  and  denominations  filled  with  bigotry 
one  toward  another. 

Visit  the  village  of  Bethlehem,  go  down  into  the 
grotto  of  the  nativity,  and  behold  the  rock-hewn 
manger  that  once  cradled  the  Prince  of  Peace.  Why 
has  it  been  necessary  that  there  should  be  standing 
beside  that  holy  place  of  peace  a  Moslem  soldier  with 
drawn  sword,  to  keep  "  Christian  "  priests  of  different 
orders  from  flying  at  one  another's  throats?  This  is 
typical  of  what  has  been  the  relationships  of  religions 
for  centuries  throughout  these  lands. 

Everywhere  in  the  world  the  war  has  brought  a 
demand  for  a  new  count  of  the  meaning  and  value 
of  religious  faith.  "  Unless  your  righteousness 
shall  exceed  the  righteousness  of  the  Scribes  and 
Pharisees  "  is  the  test  demanded  to-day  of  every  re- 
ligious belief  and  practise.  Streams  of  new  life  from 
all  directions  are  already  beginning  to  pour  over  the 
barriers  now  forever  broken  down  and  are  about  to 
flow  across  these  ancient  lands.  This  new  life  of 
commerce,  politics,  industry,  and  education  cares  little 
for  historic  creeds  and  ancient  rites.  If  these  things, 
by  their  divisions,  hinder  the  progress  of  the  new  day, 
they  will  be  swept  aside;  if  they  aid  in  a  cooperation 
that  upbuilds,  they  will  have  a  large  place  in  recon- 
structing the  old  life. 


OLD  RELIGIONS  IN  THE  NEW  DAY  83 

In  the  early  years  of  the  war  all  French  schools  and 
institutions  were  seized  by  the  Turkish  government, 
and  the  priests  and  sisters  were  often  unceremoniously 
turned  out-of-doors,  later  to  be  deported  from  the 
country.  The  buildings  of  the  Syrian  Protestant  Col- 
lege in  Beirut  were  thrown  open  to  receive  such 
refugees.  It  was  a  circumstance  that  opened  wide  the 
eyes  of  the  land,  to  see  Jesuit  priests  and  Roman 
Catholic  nuns  hospitably  and  harmoniously  housed  in 
a  Protestant  institution.  In  Urumia,  Persia,  the 
American  Mission  compound  was  alternately  a  refuge 
for  fleeing  crowds  of  terror-stricken  Syrian  and  Ar- 
menian Christians,  and  destitute  Kurds  and  Turks. 

Thus  was  it  demonstrated  how  the  war  could  break 
barriers  of  religious  attachment,  and  how  the  spirit  of 
the  West,  in  the  name  of  Christ,  could  receive  all  men 
as  brothers.  Are  these  things  merely  for  the  stress 
of  war?  Musi:  there  be  a  necessary  return  to  the  old 
prejudices?  Is  not  the  spirit  of  the  new  day  to  be 
the  spirit  of  Christ's  day? 

At  a  conference  recently  held  in  Syria,  the  repre- 
sentatives of  twelve  Societies  voted  unanimously  to 
join  in  cooperative  work.  These  Societies  included 
such  widely  divergent  organizations  as  the  Society  of 
Friends  and  the  Church  Missionary  Society  of  the 
Church  of  England.  The  plans  include  regular  meet- 
ings together — cooperation  in  the  occupation  of  new 
fields,  union  training  of  workers,  promotion  of  united/ 
interests  in  the  publication  and  distribution  of  mis- 
sionary literature,  and  the  purpose  to  organize  in  Syria 


84  THE  NEAR  EAST 

a  single  and  united  Church  of  Christ.  As  one  of  the 
members  of  the  conference  suggested,  "  Could  Syria 
give  any  greater  gift  to  the  world,  second  only  to  the 
gift  of  Christ  Himself,  than  a  united  Church  from 
which  all  sectarian  divisions  were  eliminated  ?  " 

The  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  should  play 
a  large  part  in  the  physical,  moral,  and  spiritual  uplift 
of  the  Near  East  because  it  touches  the  young  men  of 
the  country — the  future  leaders  of  the  land.  They 
sadly  need  what  the  Association  can  give  them  after 
over  a  thousand  years  of  Moslem  rule.  The  Grand 
Mufti,  head  of  the  Moslems  in  Palestine,  has  ex- 
pressed his  interest  in  the  organization,  and  said  that 
he  would  welcome  it  for  the  young  men  of  Jerusalem, 
adding  that  his  own  boy  should  be  the  first  member. 

As  this  Near  East  is  looking  to  the  West  for  guid- 
ance in  the  affairs  of  state  and  industry,  will  it  not 
also  accept  as  never  before  that  guidance  which  teaches 
toleration  and  cooperation,  which  proclaims :  "  In  es- 
sentials, unity;  in  non-essentials,  liberty;  in  all  things, 
charity  "  ? 

What  the  Near  East,  together  with  all  the  world, 
needs  to-day  is  not,  primarily,  greater  and  more  effi- 
cient organizations  and  more  extended  industrial  de- 
velopment, but  it  needs  a  new  proclamation  of  and 
insistence  upon  the  same  gospel  of  love  which  Paul 
preached  to  the  Corinthians.  This  is  the  fire  that  must 
burn  among  these  people  to  whom  the  word  was  first 
proclaimed. 


IV 
HOME  LIFE  AND  INDUSTRIES 


CHAPTER  FOUR 

HOME   LIFE   AND   INDUSTRIES 

"LJANGING  in  the  window  of  one  of  our  Oriental 
shops  is  a  beautiful  carpet.  The  price  in  this 
country  is  so  high  that  only  the  more  well-to-do  can 
afford  to  buy  it.  Or,  perhaps,  he  who  has  a  real  love 
of  the  beautiful  will  make  that  his  one  luxury  and 
secure  something  which  will  be  a  joy  to  him  through- 
out his  remaining  years.  There  are  special  marks 
upon  this  rug  by  which  the  initiated  can  tell  the  exact 
district  or  even  village  in  which  it  was  made.  There 
is  a  legend  contained  in  the  pattern  of  the  weaving, 
and  the  number  of  knots  to  the  square  inch  reveals 
the  skill  of  the  laborer  who  produced  it.  Perhaps  it 
began  its  journey  by  caravan  to  the  markets  of  the 
West  from  Shiraz  in  Persia  or  from  Bokhara  or 
from  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor;  but  from  whatever 
distant  loom  it  came,  the  story  of  its  manufacture  is 
practically  the  same.  The  story  of  the  making  of  that 
rug  is  the  story  of  the  industrial  and  artistic  life  of 
the  people  of  the  Near  East,  whether  of  Persia  01^ 
Turkey  or  Egypt. 

87 


88  THE  NEAR  EAST 

One  who  is  not  acquainted  with  Oriental  carpets  is 
often  distressed  by  the  irregularity  of  pattern,  by  the 
fact  that  one  end  is  wider  than  the  other,  or  that  the 
shade  of  colors  is  not  the  same  throughout  the  rug. 
These  are  but  marks  by  which  the  story  of  the  making 
of  the  rug  can  be  read. 

The  Life  Story  of  a  Rug 

A  mother  in  Persia  has  decided  to  make  a  carpet 
for  her  home.  In  one  corner  of  the  living-room  is 
a  frame  over  which  the  warp  is  laid.  Skeins  of  yarn 
are  spun  by  hand  from  wool  that  has  been  saved  from 
the  sheep  that  have  supplied  the  winter's  food  for  the 
family.  From  vegetables  and  herbs  gathered  in  the 
garden  and  on  the  mountain-side  the  dyes  are  pre- 
pared in  the  home.  The  design  which  is  to  be  woven 
into  the  rug  is  not  original,  but  it  is  the  conventional 
design  of  that  village, — it  would  be  a  shame  to  weave 
a  carpet  with  a  new  pattern  from  which  people  would 
not  recognize  the  village  in  which  it  was  made.  Then, 
as  household  cares  permit,  the  mother  and  her  daugh- 
ters, with  skilful  fingers  trained  from  childhood,  tie 
into  the  groundwork  the  bright  colors  of  the  yarn. 
Slowly  and  laboriously,  with  painstaking  care,  one 
hundred,  two  hundred  knots,  or  more  to  the  square 
inch,  the  rug  grows  into  form.  Month  after  month 
the  work  advances,  and  in  the  course  of  a  year,  two 
years,  or  three,  this  work  of  love  for  the  home  has 
been  completed.  With  careful  and  dexterous  fingers 


HOME  LIFE  AND  INDUSTRIES  89 

the  shears  have  been  taken,  the  surface  has  been 
clipped  until  all  the  yarns  are  of  equal  length,  and  at 
last  the  rug  is  spread  upon  the  floor.  Then  the  family 
and  neighbors  gather  and  give  expression  to  their 
admiration  at  the  skill  of  the  housewife  in  this,  her 
labor. 

For  years  the  rug  lies  upon  the  floor  of  that  home, 
or  perhaps,  moved  by  some  religious  impulse,  it  is 
given  as  an  offering  to  the  church  or  the  mosque;  but 
never,  whether  in  home  or  place  of  worship,  has  the 
dirt  of  the  street  been  ground  into  it,  for  the  shoes  of 
the  family  or  worshipers  have  always  been  removed 
at  the  door.  And  so  through  years  of  use,  the  surface 
of  this  carpet  has  been  polished  by  stockinged  feet 
until  it  has  been  given  that  incomparable  sheen  which 
no  machine-made  rug  of  Western  lands  ever  attains. 

After  a  time  the  changing  fortunes  of  the  family 
or  the  attractive  price  of  some  merchant  throws  the 
rug  into  the  market,  and  it  is  brought  to  our  Western 
shores  and  offered  for  sale  as  we  see  it  in  this  shop 
window. 

Individual  Handicraft 

Whether  it  is  a  carpet  that  is  made,  a  towel  that  is 
woven,  or  a  jar  of  brass  that  is  hammered,  it  is  always 
the  individual  hand-work  of  some  artisan  who  has 
learned  his  trade  from  his  father,  or  who  has  been 
apprenticed  to  some  master  workman.  It  is  interesting/ 
to  note  here  that  the  word  for  teacher  and  master  is 
the  same :  one  who  guides  the  child  until  he  has  become 


90  THE  NEAR  EAST 

the  expert  and  finished  workman,  whether  with  tools 
or  with  books. 

Archeologists  tell  us  that  they  can  trace  the  history 
of  one  of  these  Eastern  lands  by  the  bits  of  broken 
pottery  that  they  find  buried  in  the  sites  of  ancient 
cities.  One  layer  of  this  pottery  above  another,  with 
intervening  covering  of  earth,  tells  how  one  home  or 
one  town  has  been  built  over  the  ruins  of  another, 
and  each  broken  bit  of  pottery  bears  the  distinctive 
mark  of  its  locality. 

To-day  you  enter  a  pottery  by  the  seaside:  there 
sits  the  workman  at  his  wheel,  the  motive  power  being 
his  bare  feet,  and  for  the  shaping  of  the  jar  he  uses 
his  hands  and  a  stick.  With  this  crude  machinery, 
he  produces  jars  of  most  graceful  pattern  which,  either 
in  shape  or  decoration,  differ  from  those  of  every 
other  district. 

Industry,  then,  is  always  local,  individual  handi- 
craft. There  are  certain  recognized  guilds  for  the 
different  trades.  Boys  serve  apprenticeships  and  after 
attaining  a  degree  of  proficiency  become  regularly 
recognized  journeymen.  But  there  is  no  standardizing 
of  pattern  nor  organization  into  great  industrial 
centers. 

This  system  of  village  handicrafts,  if  system  it  can 
be  called,  has  doubtless  preserved  the  traditional  arts 
of  the  people,  and  has  developed  a  high  degree  of  skill 
in  the  individual  worker.  But  it  has  failed  to  make 
use  on  any  large  scale  of  the  raw  materials  lying  close 
at  hand,  or  to  make  of  the  country  a  great  factor  in 


HOME  LIFE  AND  INDUSTRIES  91 

the  production  of  articles  for  the  consumption  of  the 
world.  The  type  of  life  in  these  countries,  therefore, 
is  dominantly  that  of  the  village,  for  there  have  been 
no  organized  industrial  movements  to  draw  laborers 
into  city  centers.  The  life  of  the  people  has  remained 
simple;  the  problems  of  the  complex  living  conditions 
created  by  industrial  cities  have  not  yet  arisen  for  any 
considerable  portion  of  the  population.  How  to  meet 
the  demands  of  the  new  period  that  is  opening,  when 
machinery  and  factories  will  become  common,  is  a 
serious  question  for  the  people  and  their  leaders. 
How  may  the  old  skill  of  hand  and  simplicity  of  living 
be  preserved,  while  at  the  same  time  the  people  are 
given  the  opportunity  for  larger  production  and  for 
winning  better  returns  from  their  labor?  The  results 
of  organized  industrial  life  are  not  all  constructive, 
and  there  is  a  beauty  and  attractiveness  about  this 
simple  home  manufacture  which  is  well  worth  pre- 
serving if  it  can  also  be  made  to  meet  the  larger  de- 
mands which  the  expanding  life  of  the  country  must 
lay  upon  it. 

Agricultural  Life 

What  has  been  said  of  the  manufacturing  life  is 
largely  true  also  of  the  agricultural.  The  two  are  not 
so  distinctly  divided  in  these  backward  lands  of  the 
East  as  they  are  in  our  more  highly  organized  lands 
of  the  West.  The  pastoral,  the  agricultural,  and  the 
industrial  live  side  by  side  in  the  same  village,  com- 
munity, and  family.  For  while  the  father  is  tilling 


92  THE  NEAR  EAST 

the  bit  of  land  which  belongs  to  the  family,  the  mother 
is  often  adding  to  her  household  cares  the  making  of 
a  rug,  or  the  crocheting  of  beautiful  lace,  or  the  em- 
broidering of  a  table-cloth  or  cushion  cover.  On  the 
other  hand,  often  the  father  and  sons  are  weavers, 
and  it  is  the  womanfolk  who  care  for  the  sheep,  the 
chickens,  and  the  cow  which  supply  the  family  with 
food  and  clothing. 

The  methods  of  agriculture  are  too  well-known  to 
need  detailed  description  here.  The  simple  plow 
drawn  by  a  yoke  of  cows,  by  a  donkey,  or  a  camel  is 
a  familiar  picture  in  all  books  about  the  life  of  the 
East.  The  harvester's  sickle  or  the  crude  threshing 
floor  with  the  sledge  which  tears  the  straw  into  bits 
and  beats  out  the  ripened  grain  is  a  favorite  item  of 
description  for  tourists.  This  plow  but  scratches  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  the  grain  is  scattered  by  hand, 
the  sickle  gathers  the  harvest  a  handful  at  a  time,  the 
long,  dry  summer  is  given  to  threshing  and  winnow- 
ing, and  the  flour  is  ground  in  the  old  stone  mill 
turned  by  a  rude  water-wheel  beside  one  of  the  moun- 
tain streams. 

Irrigation  Possibilities 

The  people  have  a  natural  aptitude  for  the  processes 
of  irrigation,  for  in  these  lands  are  vast  areas  where 
there  are  months  of  dry  summer-time,  and  the  moun- 
tains, fountains,  and  streams  must  be  the  means  of 
fertility  to  the  soil  through  the  growing  months.  With 
their  rude  irrigation  ditches  and  primitive  dams,  the 


HOME  LIFE  AND  INDUSTRIES  93 

people  have  indeed  done  well  in  the  rescuing  of  garden 
plots,  orchards,  and  small  fields  from  the  arid  waste 
of  summer.  The  ancient  Babylonians  had  great  and 
extensive  irrigation  works  throughout  the  Mesopo- 
tamian  valley,  but  these  have  been  permitted  to  fall 
into  disrepair,  until  that  whole  vast  region  is  now 
either  a  swamp  or  a  desert.  The  engineers  of  the 
British  Government  in  Egypt  have  demonstrated  what 
can  be  done  in  the  present  day  by  the  control  of 
surplus  water  and  the  proper  distribution  of  it  in  the 
valley  of  the  Nile.  Similar  surveys  have  been  under- 
taken in  the  valley  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  Fol- 
lowing the  advance  of  the  British  army  in  Mesopo- 
tamia, thousands  of  acres  of  hitherto  desolate  land 
have  been  redeemed,  and  the  wilderness  behind  where 
the  British  lines  were  is  already  beginning  to  blossom 
as  the  rose. 

Pastoral  Life 

Over  the  hills  and  up  the  mountain-sides  of  the  Near 
East  roam  flocks  of  sheep  and  herds  of  goats  tended 
by  a  shepherd  and  his  faithful  dog.  They  gather  at 
night  in  a  rudely  built  sheep-fold  where  the  shepherd, 
lying  across  the  doorway,  interprets  the  meaning  of 
Christ's  statement,  "  I  am  the  door  of  the  sheep." 

The  camel,  the  essential  element  in  the  transporta- 
tion system  of  the  Near  East,  is  raised  in  great  herds 
along  the  edge  of  the  desert  and  is  sold  in  the  markets 
of  Damascus,  Aleppo,  and  Baghdad. 

Along  with  the  camel,  the  horse  was  God's  gift  to 


94 

the  Arab.  These  animals  are  native  to  this  region, 
and  the  finest  blood  and  the  best  stock  that  the  world 
has  known  come  from  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia  and 
the  deserts  of  Arabia.  Water  buffaloes,  donkeys,  and 
domestic  cattle  are  found  everywhere. 

This  agricultural  and  pastoral  life  is  lived  in  its 
simplicity.  The  people  work  hard,  have  a  native 
instinct  for  both  soil  and  stock,  and  yet,  because  of 
ignorance  and  oppression,  they  have  been  unable  to 
gain  a  due  reward  for  the  amount  of  energy  and  in- 
dustry displayed. 

Peace  and  Protection,  then  Progress 

Throughout  the  hundreds  of  years  of  the  history  of 
these  countries,  the  Arabs  from  the  desert  and  the 
Kurds  and  Circassians  from  the  hills  have  ever  been 
a  menace  to  those  people  who  wished  to  cultivate  the 
soil  and  to  live  in  peace  in  the  villages  and  towns. 
They  have  always  descended  as  robber  bands  upon 
these  peaceful  industrial  settlements  and  have  swept 
away  the  result  of  the  year's  industry.  The  hero 
Gideon  gained  his  distinction  by  driving  back  the 
hordes  of  Midianites  who  had  overspread  the  land  of 
Israel.  They  had  come  with  their  little  black  tents, 
their  flocks  of  sheep,  and  their  herds  of  camels  and 
had  settled  like  locusts  upon  the  land.  No  govern- 
ment has  yet  been  able  fully  to  protect  the  land  from 
these  marauders,  no  government  has  permitted  the 
people  to  unite  for  their  own  protection,  nor  has  any 


HOME  LIFE  AND  INDUSTRIES  95 

methodical  means  been  sought  to  train  the  robbers  in 
better  ways  of  living.  Indeed,  the  greatest  robber  has 
been  the  government  itself.  But  once  give  the  people 
peace  and  protection  from  these  robbers,  both  official 
and  marauding,  and  they  will  very  quickly  reestablish 
their  own  industrial  and  community  life. 

The  very  primitive  individual  method  of  manufac- 
ture, where  they  use  the  raw  material  that  is  at  hand 
and  work  it  up  in  their  own  village  and  home,  relieves 
the  people  of  much  of  the  embarrassment  which  comes 
to  the  ordinary  manufacturing  community.  This  sim- 
plifies the  question  of  reconstruction.  The  problem  of 
the  present,  and  that  for  which  the  people  are  longing, 
is,  then,  that  of  reestablishment  and  safety.  Later 
there  will  come  the  aid  which  can  be  given  by  improved 
methods,  machinery,  and  instruction. 

The  present  form  of  industry  is  individualistic; 
organized  industry  is  cooperative.  At  the  present  time 
every  family  or  village  is  sufficient  to  itself.  What 
will  be  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  Western 
leadership  and  organization  when  this  simple  life  shall 
be  broken  down  and  the  more  complex  interdependent 
life,  called  civilization,  shall  come  to  prevail? 

Dining  Out  in  Egypt 

A  trip  to  Egypt  means,  of  course,  that  you  will  see 
the  Pyramids,  and  the  Sphinx,  and  the  great  Temples, 
of  Karnak,  and  the  wonderful  Assuan  Dam.  And  if 
you  are  very  fortunate,  there  may  come  a  messenger 


96  THE  NEAR  EAST 

from  the  father  of  one  of  the  students  in  the  American 
College  inviting  you  to  dinner  at  his  home.  He  is  a 
wealthy  Mohammedan.  His  private  carriage  with  a 
fine  team  of  horses  or,  perhaps,  an  automobile  is  wait- 
ing at  the  hotel  door.  You  have  been  through  the 
bazaars,  have  visited  the  mosques,  and  have  been  im- 
pressed with  the  fine  European  city  of  Cairo.  But 
here  is  a  chance  to  enter  a  real  Egyptian  home,  and 
so  you  accept  the  invitation  and  are  whirled  away  to 
one  of  the  fine  residential  districts,  and  arriving  at 
your  host's  home,  are  received  with  great  courtesy  as 
an  honored  guest. 

There  is  always  excitement  about  being  received  for 
the  first  time  in  a  Moslem  home.  You  feel  that  things 
must  be  different  from  what  you  are  accustomed  to. 
You  do  not  know  just  how  you  are  supposed  to  act, 
or  what  is  the  proper  etiquette  to  be  observed.  Every 
curtain,  you  imagine,  divides  the  harem  from  the  rest 
of  the  house.  You  expect  to  find  veiled  faces  or  per- 
haps a  pair  of  curious  eyes  peeping  out  from  behind 
the  drapery.  Yet  none  of  these  things  occur. 

You  find  the  Cairo  home  very  much  like  any  man- 
sion in  Europe.  Servants  receive  you  at  the  door,  and 
you  are  ushered  into  a  drawing-room,  furnished  with 
Parisian  furniture,  although  with  a  decided  touch  of 
the  Oriental  intermingled.  There  are  splendid  Persian 
carpets  on  the  floor,  over  the  divan,  and  sometimes 
hanging  upon  the  walls.  There  will  probably  be  a 
phonograph  and  possibly  a  piano. 

You  will  be  received  by  the  head  of  the  house  and 


HOME  LIFE  AND  INDUSTRIES  97 

his  son  and  very  likely  a  friend  or  two  who  have 
been  invited  for  the  occasion.  Cigarettes  will  be 
passed  and  coffee,  not  large  cups  of  coffee  with  cream 
and  sugar,  but  little  cups,  piping  hot,  poured  from  the 
brass  coffee-pot  in  your  presence,  perhaps  with  sugar, 
more  likely  without,  and  sometimes  flavored  with 
cinnamon.  The  servants  tread  softly  and  are  robed 
in  the  long  white  gowns  peculiar  to  the  people  of  the 
Nile  and  well-suited  to  the  heat  of  that  country. 

After  you  have  remained  seated  for  a  time,  your 
host  will  ask  when  you  would  like  to  have  dinner,  and 
you  find  yourself  in  the  embarrassing  position  of  hav- 
ing to  indicate  whether  you  will  eat  now  or  later,  for 
his  politeness  does  not  permit  him  to  fix  the  time  at 
which  the  meal  shall  be  served.  You  say  that  you 
will  be  pleased  to  dine  now.  Then  the  courses  begin 
to  arrive,  served  perhaps  on  a  little  table  in  the 
drawing-room  where  you  are  sitting  or,  if  your  host 
has  become  sufficiently  Europeanized,  in  a  grand 
dining-room  and  on  a  dining-table.  Often  the  meal 
will  consist  of  a  dozen  or  fifteen  or  even  twenty 
courses:  vegetables,  meat,  and  sweets  being  inter- 
mingled throughout  this  repast.  If  it  chances  to  be 
during  the  Fast  of  Ramadan,  you  will  eat  alone,  for 
your  good  Mohammedan  must  not  eat  until  the  sun 
has  set,  and  it  is  still  early  for  his  meal.  Such  cus- 
toms as  these  would  not  differ  materially  in  any  well- 
to-do  home  in  the  modern  cities  of  the  Near  East,, 
whether  in  Cairo,  Damascus,  Constantinople,  or 
Teheran. 


98  THE  NEAR  EAST 

In  a- Peasant  Village 

Go  now  on  another  visit,  this  time  to  a  village  in 
the  midst  of  the  rich  corn  lands  of  the  Delta,  and 
there  a  friend  will  drive  you  in  his  pony  chaise  to  one 
of  the  villages  which  belongs  to  his  estate.  The  flat- 
roofed  houses  are  built  of  mud-dried  bricks ;  the  floors 
are  possibly  made  of  stone,  more  likely  of  clay 
smoothed,  beaten  down,  and  dried;  the  furniture  is 
very  meagre,  the  beds  are  mattresses  spread  upon  the 
floor  and  put  away  in  a  little  alcove  during  the  day. 
Here  the  landowner  gathers  the  people  about  him  and 
in  truly  patriarchal  fashion  hears  their  complaints,  ad- 
vises them  about  their  business  or  their  fields,  decides 
family  quarrels,  and  reconciles  a  husband  and  his  wife. 
The  men  and  the  women  mingle  freely,  and  all  are 
curious  to  see  the  stranger.  Some  are  roasting  green 
ears  of  corn  over  an  open  fire,  and  others  are  baking 
corn  cakes  for  the  evening  meal.  There  is  an  appetiz- 
ing fragrance  from  these  culinary  preparations,  and 
you  gladly  accept  when  invited  to  share  the  meal.  It 
matters  not  that  the  open  fire  over  which  the  cooking 
has  been  done  was  made  of  dried  manure  cakes,  of 
which  you  see  many  plastered  on  the  side  of  the  house, 
or  that  the  surroundings  are  not  as  clean  and  hygienic 
as  a  sanitary  commission  would  advise.  It  all  seems 
part  of  a  primitive,  simple,  contented  village  life. 

On  inquiry  you  learn  that  these  peasants  are  re- 
receiving  rich  returns  for  their  rented  lands,  and  that 
many  of  them  have  deposits  in  the  agricultural  banks 


HOME  LIFE  AND  INDUSTRIES  99 

which  the  government  has  established.  The  ever  pres- 
ent water  in  the  irrigating  ditches,  made  possible  by 
that  splendid  dam  you  visited  up  the  Nile,  insures  an 
abundant  crop  of  corn  or  cotton.  The  peasants  are 
no  longer  subjected  to  the  usury  of  money-lending 
sharks,  nor  are  they  oppressed  by  the  collection  of 
exorbitant  taxes  sometimes  a  year  in  advance. 

The  Feudal  Lords  of  the  Mountains 

Later  on,  you  journey  to  the  land  of  Syria  and  find 
yourself  in  an  old  feudal  castle  of  the  Lebanon  Moun- 
tains, for  generations  the  home  of  Druse  princes. 
The  walls  are  of  thick  masonry,  the  door  is  studded 
with  iron  spikes  and  is  heavily  barred  on  the  inside. 
Loopholes  for  rifles  are  on  either  side.  Up  and  down 
the  steep  stone  staircase,  some  daring  horseman  once 
rode  his  thoroughbred  Arab  mare.  This  castle  is  the 
guest  house  of  the  village  and  the  country  round.  The 
hall  is  a  common  sitting-room,  and  any  traveler  who 
chances  to  be  passing,  or  any  man  who  has  business 
with  the  estate,  or  any  curious  tourist  who  wishes  to 
see  how  these  feudal  lords  of  the  mountains  live,  is 
welcome  to  the  hospitality  of  this  house.  There  will 
be  food  in  abundance,  care  for  his  horses,  a  guest- 
room for  himself  and  his  comrade.  He  can  arrive  at 
what  hour  he  likes  and  leave  when  he  pleases.  The 
master  of  the  house,  if  at  home,  will  receive  him  with, 
the  greatest  cordiality,  and  the  servants  all  understand 
that  everything  is  to  be  done  for  his  comfort.  He  is 


100  THE  NEAR  EAST 

free  to  roam  about  the  gardens,  to  visit  the  stables,  to 
ask  questions  about  the  traditions  of  the  house  and 
vicinity,  and  all  is  as  though  he  were  in  his  own  ances- 
tral palace.  There  is  no  charge  for  entertainment,  and 
only  thanks  are  welcome. 

There  is  a  touch  of  the  medieval  days  still  retained 
in  these  mountain  fastnesses,  not  only  of  the  Lebanon, 
but  of  the  other  mountain  districts  of  Asia  Minor, 
Kurdistan,  or  Persia.  There  is  something  grand  about 
the  hospitality  and  a  genuine  cordiality  about  the  greet- 
ing and  the  farewell. 

A  Mountain  Village 

But  besides  the  castles  of  these  lords,  there  are  many 
peasant  villages  where  the  people  own  their  bits  of 
land  and  are  independent  as  agriculturists  or  trades- 
men. Each  family  will  have  its  home  of  two  or  three 
rooms,  built  either  from  stone  or  sun-dried  bricks  ac- 
cording to  the  manner  of  the  district  in  which  it  lives. 
There  will  be  a  small  vineyard,  a  few  olive  trees  and 
fig  or  mulberry  trees,  belonging  to  each  family.  While 
the  father  is  engaged  in  tilling  the  soil  or  following 
his  trade  of  stone-cutter,  shoemaker,  or  carpenter,  the 
wife  is  giving  her  attention  to  the  simple  household 
cares ;  but,  as  there  is  only  one  cooked  meal  a  day,  and 
generally  all  eat  from  the  same  dish,  making  spoons 
of  their  bread,  there  are  no  knives  or  forks  or  un- 
necessary dishes  to  be  washed.  These  simple  house- 
hold cares  are  not,  however,  the  wife's  only  duty.  She 
must  also  gather  the  mulberry  leaves  and  help  feed 


HOME  LIFE  AND  INDUSTRIES  101 

the  silkworms,  wash  and  prepare  the  wheat  for  the 
mill,  fatten  the  sheep  for  the  winter's  supply  of  meat, 
gather  the  wool,  spin  it  and  knit  it  into  coarse  stock- 
ings or  underwear,  and,  as  time  permits,  do  that  beau- 
tiful crochet  and  needlework  which  is  offered  for  sale 
by  the  Eastern  merchants  and  pedlars  in  our  towns. 
In  these  homes  children  are  raised  as  gifts  from  God. 
Thus  the  life  of  the  village  folk  goes  on  in  its  simple, 
primitive,  hard-working  round. 

Estimate  of  Education 

Where  opportunity  offers,  children  are  sent  to  the 
village  school  and,  if  possible,  to  the  missionary  col- 
leges, for  education,  especially  among  the  Christian 
peoples,  is  very  highly  prized.  A  son  or  daughter  who 
returns  to  his  village  having  received  something  of 
higher  education  is  highly  regarded  by  all  the  village 
folk,  and  his  words  are  received  as  words  of  wisdom. 
As  a  rule  the  educated  young  person  is  not  expected 
to  join  in  the  daily  tasks  of  the  village  life.  Not  that 
education  has  unfitted  him  for  manual  work,  but  edu- 
cation is  supposed  to  have  raised  him  to  a  higher 
plane.  He  must  be  a  teacher,  a  doctor,  or  the  follower 
of  some  other  learned  profession,  and  the  village  labor 
is  not  becoming  for  such  a  one. 

A  Mission  Pastor 

/ 
The  next  home  you  visit  may  be  that  of  a  pastor  in 

the  north  country.     With  his  wife  and  children  he  is 


102  THE  NEAR  EAST 

comfortably  settled  in  a  house  of  three  rooms.  The 
floor  is  covered  with  straw  matting  and  cheap,  but 
durable,  rugs.  The  one  large  room  serves  as  living- 
room,  study,  reception-room,  chapel  for  prayer  meet- 
ings, and,  upon  occasion,  guest-room.  This  pastor  has 
his  time  well  occupied  with  preaching  services  in  the 
village  church  and  supervision  of  the  schools,  both  in 
his  own  town  and  in  the  neighboring  district.  He 
also  teaches,  having  a  class  every  day  in  the  higher 
grade.  Then,  because  he  is  an  educated  man,  he  is 
called  upon  for  various  tasks:  to  write  and  read  let- 
ters for  the  people  of  the  village,  to  interpret  the 
course  of  events  in  the  outer  world,  and,  as  far  as 
possible,  to  share  with  the  people  the  gifts  which  his 
books  have  brought  to  him.  His  library  is  very 
meagre.  There  is  no  book-shop  from  which  he  can 
add  to  his  store,  and  only  occasionally  does  a  new  book 
or  magazine  come  his  way;  but  the  few  that  he  has 
are  cherished  and  studied  and  shared. 

His  wife,  too,  has  as  many  demands  made  upon 
her  time  as  though  she  were  a  pastor's  wife  in  Amer- 
ica. Besides  these  duties,  she  must  keep  her  home  a 
model  of  neatness  and  order,  so  that  it  may  be  an 
example  to  the  whole  village.  As  Paul  told  Timothy, 
"  The  Bishop  must  be  one  who  can  first  rule  his  own 
family."  The  pastor's  house  is  a  guest-house  where 
any  traveler  is  welcome,  and  where  the  people  of  the 
village  may  gather  of  an  evening  to  tell  stories,  to 
recount  legends,  and  to  receive  instruction. 

Upon  entering  this  home  you  will  be  served  with 


•  •*»  vy**—-" -' 

'/*/<•  #&8?ffiteLar& 


The  first  problem  in  Mesopotamia  is  irrigation.  Here  is 
evidence  to  prove  the  need  of  opening  the  doors  of  the  old 
Turkish  Empire  to  free  commercial  intercourse  with  the 
Western  World.  This  scraper,  typical  of  the  days  of  Moses,  is 
in  use  to-dav 


HOME  LIFE  AND  INDUSTRIES  103 

the  best  that  their  simple  life  affords.  Your  bed  will 
probably  be  made  upon  the  floor.  Guests  will  gather 
in  the  evening,  expecting  you  to  give  as  well  as  receive, 
for  you  have  come  from  the  outside  world,  and  they 
wish  to  learn  all  that  you  can  give  to  them.  They 
will  remain  late  into  the  night;  in  fact,  it  is  perfectly 
proper  to  inform  your  guests  that  you  are  tired  and 
that  it  is  time  for  them  to  leave,  otherwise  they  may 
remain  indefinitely. 

In  Other  Homes 

It  would  be  delightful  in  the  course  of  one's  jour- 
ney to  visit  the  Arab  in  his  tent  upon  the  desert,  to 
break  bread  with  him,  to  see  his  flocks  and  herds  and 
perhaps  have  an  opportunity  of  riding  one  of  his  fa- 
vorite steeds  in  a  race  across  the  level  gravel  surface 
of  the  desert.  How  interesting  it  would  be  to  go  to 
such  a  district  as  Shiraz  or  Kermanshah  and  see  the 
manufacture  of  Persian  rugs  in  the  homes  of  the 
people;  to  be  served  with  glasses  of  the  delicious  white 
tea,  sweetened  but  without  milk;  to  have  them  point 
out  the  places  made  famous  by  Persia's  long  and  won- 
derful history;  to  see  where  Rawlinson  finally  learned 
to  translate  the  ancient  Persion  inscriptions;  to  go 
with  the  people  to  their  work,  to  their  schools,  and  to 
their  mosques! 

Village  life  in  all  these  countries  of  the  East  is 
very  much  the  same,  given  a  local  change  of  dress  and 
food  and  natural  surroundings;  but  it  is  all  primitive 
and  individual,  each  village  living  largely  for  and  by 


104  THE  NEAR  EAST 

itself,  without  easy  means  of  communication,  one  dis- 
trict with  another. 

Traveling  in  the  East 

Few  of  those  who  visited  "  the  streets  of  Cairo  "  at 
the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  failed  to  try  a 
camel  ride,  and  as  the  huge  beast  lumbered  into  posi- 
tion and  strode  away  with  his  peculiar,  rocking  motion, 
there  seemed  more  of  adventure  and  excitement  than 
of  pure  enjoyment  in  the  experience.  But  trains  of 
such  camels  have  been  the  system  of  transportation 
throughout  all  these  Eastern  lands  from  time  im- 
memorial. Pack-trains  of  mules  and  horses,  too,  go 
over  the  rough  mountain  paths  connecting  village  with 
village,  but  it  has  been  the  camels  that  have  taken  the 
supply  of  food  and  clothing  and  the  articles  of  mer- 
chandise from  one  end  of  the  land  to  the  other  and 
from  one  country  to  another. 

Very  few  carriage  roads  have  been  constructed  ex- 
cept where  tourist  trade  has  demanded  them,  such  as  in 
Palestine  and  southern  Syria  or  where  European  in- 
fluence and  trade  have  rendered  it  necessary,  as  along 
the  seacoasts  and  from  the  Caucasus  into  Persia. 

Some  railroads  under  foreign  grants  have  been  con- 
structed, so  that  it  is  now  possible  to  go  all  over  Egypt 
on  as  good  trains  as  are  found  anywhere  in  the  world. 
During  the  War  a  railroad  was  built  for  military  pur- 
poses from  the  Suez  Canal  to  Jerusalem.  It  is  now 
being  developed  for  regular  service,  so  that  the  Egyp- 
tian who  in  years  past  bumped  and  rocked  on  camel 


HOME  LIFE  AND  INDUSTRIES  105 

back  for  days  over  rough  roads  may  now  get  into  a 
luxurious  sleeper  and  the  next  morning  fare  forth 
into  Jerusalem  after  a  restful  night's  sleep.  One  can 
pass  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Caspian  Sea  and  down 
into  northern  Persia  on  Russian  railway  lines. 

Before  the  war,  English  and  French  roads  had 
penetrated  somewhat  into  the  interior  of  Turkey  from 
Smyrna  and  Beirut.  The  Turkish  Government  had 
built  a  narrow-gage  railway  along  the  edge  of  the 
desert  from  Damascus  down  into  Arabia  as  far  as  the 
city  of  Medina;  and  last  but  not  least,  the  Germans  had 
contemplated  a  great  trunk  line  from  Constantinople 
to  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  greater  and  most  difficult 
part  of  this  road  has  already  been  built,  and  it  is  in 
operation  so  that  one  can  go  by  train  from  the  Bos- 
phorus  across  the  plains  of  Asia  Minor,  by  tunnel 
through  the  Taurus  Mountains,  over  the  Euphrates 
River,  and  well-nigh  to  Mosul  itself.  A  railroad  from 
Basra  to  Baghdad  has  also  been  built  by  the  British  as 
part  of  a  military  system.  But  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant enterprises  of  this  nature  is  the  railroad  which 
was  built  secretly  from  the  eastern  border  of  Persia 
through  Baluchistan  to  northern  India.  This  opens  up 
a  through  route  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  India. 

While  there  are  these  main  arteries  of  transporta- 
tion by  rail  and  while  they  do  serve  to  bind  these 
countries  together  as  never  before,  still  the  chief  means 
of  travel  and  transport  is  by  pack-train  or  wagon  over 
the  rough,  native  paths  or  the  very  indifferent  high- 
ways. Some  slight  extension  of  the  railroads  already 


106  THE  NEAR  EAST 

constructed  and  improvement  of  wagon-roads  will  be 
a  great  blessing  to  these  lands,  rendering  trade  more 
easy  and  travel  more  rapid  and  safe.  They  will  also 
serve  to  break  up  the  individual  self-sufficiency  of  the 
various  districts,  binding  them  together  in  a  feeling 
of  interdependence,  and  enabling  the  government  to 
exercise  more  efficient  control  and  protection  of  the 
disturbed  parts.  Yet,  after  all,  many  portions  of  the 
country  must  still  be  reached  by  camels,  mules,  and 
horses.  Just  as  in  Egypt,  where  the  railways  are  so 
admirable  and  the  system  so  extended,  these  native 
beasts  of  burden  have  still  their  great  work  to  perform. 

The  Gifts  of  Nature   ' 

Cutting  across  the  eastern  end  of  the  great  Sahara 
Desert  is  the  valley  of  the  Nile  River.  Fed  by  the 
rains  and  lakes  of  Central  Africa,  it  flows,  a  river  of 
life,  across  the  sands  of  the  desert.  Egypt  proper 
extends  for  eight  hundred  miles  up  the  Nile,  and  the 
fertile  portion  averages  about  sixteen  miles  in  width. 
To  this  may  be  added  a  few  oases  in  the  neighbor- 
ing desert.  It  has  always  been  one  of  the  wonders  of 
the  world  how  this  narrow  valley  of  13,000  square 
miles  could  support  the  great  populations  of  Egypt 
and  also  supply  grain  for  the  countries  of  Europe. 
It  is  no  wonder  that  in  ancient  times  the  Nile  was 
worshiped  as  a  god,  for  this  river  valley,  with  its 
luxuriant  soil  and  abundant  water-supply,  is  one  of 
the  richest  gifts  of  nature  to  the  world. 


HOME  LIFE  AND  INDUSTRIES  107 

To  us  in  this  Western  world  little  is  known  of  the 
land  of  Persia.  It  is  a  great  empire  of  over  600,000 
square  miles,  but  only  one  fourth  of  this  surface  is 
fertile.  Rich  and  beautiful  valleys  between  the  moun- 
tain ranges,  with  abundant  springs  and  streams  have 
made  this  land  famous  in  past  history  for  its  beauty 
and  fertility.  We  are  told  that  the  finest  wheat  in 
all  the  world  comes  from  Persia,  and  that  fruits  and 
flowers  abound  in  these  sun-kissed  valleys. 

During  the  past  five  years  the  greatest  attention  has 
been  centered  upon  lands  embraced  within  the  Turkish 
Empire.  Exclusive  of  Arabia,  this  empire  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  war  was  as  large  as  the  United  States 
of  America  east  of  the  Mississippi  and  north  of  the 
Ohio  and  Potomac  rivers,  with  the  state  of  Virginia 
added.  The  climate  varies  from  temperate  to  sub- 
tropical. The  lower  plains  and  the  river  valleys  are 
rich  alluvial  deposits,  deep  and  fertile.  The  soil  of 
the  country  in  the  higher  plains  has  been  produced  by 
the  disintegration  of  the  limestone  rocks,  and  it  is  con- 
stantly renewed  by  the  washings  of  the  mountains. 
Such  a  climate  and  such  a  soil  insure  a  rich  return  for 
all  labor  expended  upon  it. 

Turkey  has  always  been  looked  upon  as  chiefly  an 
agricultural  country,  and  this,  perhaps,  is  its  first  re- 
source in  wealth.  One  recalls  from  Ancient  History 
stories  of  the  riches  of  Babylon  and  Mesopotamia. 
This  wealth  was  derived  almost  entirely  from  the  agri- 
cultural prosperity  of  the  country.  Grains  of  all  kinds 
and  also  cotton,  were  produced  in  such  abundance  that 


108  THE  NEAR  EAST 

the  Greek  historian  Herodotus  said  that  he  feared  to 
write  the  size  of  the  plants  and  fruits  lest  his  readers 
should  not  believe  him. 

Not  only  is  the  valley  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates 
one  of  the  richest  garden  spots  in  the  world,  but  there 
are  also  other  stretches  of  territory  in  this  wonderful 
land  which  are  almost  equally  productive.  We  remem- 
ber the  stories  in  the  Bible  of  the  raids  of  the  Midianites 
upon  the  grain-fields  of  Israel.  The  land  of  Moab  was 
also  famous  for  its  wheat,  and  the  great  valley  between 
the  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon  was  one  of  the  gran- 
aries of  ancient  days.  Central  Asia  Minor  is  one  great 
plateau,  capable  of  cultivation  and  of  production  of 
all  kinds  of  grains.  Indeed,  we  are  told  that  wheat 
and  the  sorghum  plant  are  native  to  the  Turkish 
Empire. 

But  these  great  fields  lie  largely  waste  at  the  present 
time.  Antiquated  methods  of  industry,  the  crudest 
of  tools,  together  with  entire  lack  of  encouragement 
on  the  part  of  the  government,  has  turned  what  should 
be  the  garden  of  the  world  into  a  great  Turkish 
desert.  We  are  assured,  however,  that  all  of  this  can 
easily  be  reclaimed  by  proper  encouragement,  organi- 
zation, and  the  construction  of  suitable  works  of  irri- 
gation. 

The  Mesopotamian  valley  supported  at  one  time  at 
least  forty  millions  of  people.  The  entire  Turkish  Em- 
pire before  the  war  did  not  have  a  total  population 
of  more  than  twenty  millions,  and  the  past  four  years 
has  seen  that  reduced  at  least  twenty-five  per  cent. 


HOME  LIFE  AND  INDUSTRIES  109 

Yet  this  country  is  capable  of  easily  feeding  and  caring 
for  a  hundred  million  souls. 

Olives,  grapes,  oranges,  lemons,  figs,  dates,'  cherries ; 
how  one's  mouth  waters  to  think  of  them !  And  they 
all  grow  abundantly  in  Turkey,  together  with  most  of 
the  fruits  and  nuts  of  the  temperate  climate.  We  all 
know  of  the  dried  figs  of  Smyrna,  the  apricots  of 
Syria,  and  the  dates  of  Basra. 

There  are  also  large  agricultural  possibilities  in  silk 
culture,  tobacco,  licorice,  hemp,  and  flax,  and  many 
other  plants  which  can  readily  be  produced. 

Untouched  Mineral  Wealth 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Turkey  and  Persia  is  not  so 
well  known.  It  is  true  there  has  been  talk  of  copper 
and  iron  and  silver  and  gold.  We  know  of  the  gold- 
mines of  Croesus,  of  the  fine  steel  of  the  Damascus 
blades,  and  that  the  ancient  Egyptians  worked  mines 
in  certain  parts  of  southern  Palestine.  The  maps 
which  have  been  published  by  German  engineers  indi- 
cate rich  deposits  of  coal,  both  soft  and  hard,  well  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  country.  Iron  also  occurs  in 
at  least  a  dozen  places,  while  copper  is  found  in  a  num- 
ber of  districts,  some  of  the  mines  producing  ore  con- 
taining as  high  as  seventy  per  cent  of  the  metal. 
Silver  is  noted  in  at  least  four  places,  and  mercury, 
manganese,  lead,  emery,  and  salt  are  found  in  abun- 
dance. There  are  many  other  secondary  metals  which 
have  been  noted,  but  a  more  careful  survey  is  needed 


110  THE  NEAR  EAST 

to  point  out  where  the  rich  deposits  lie.  We  have 
already  made  mention  in  this  book  of  the  petroleum 
which  is  being  piped  from  the  Persian  border  to  the 
coast.  In  at  least  three  other  parts  of  the  Turkish 
Empire  this  invaluable  fluid  can  undoubtedly  be 
located.  Those  competent  to  speak  upon  the  subject 
state  that  there  is  no  other  district  in  the  world  which 
gives  such  prospects  of  rich  return  in  petroleum  as  the 
region  of  the  Jordan  valley. 

But  these  mineral  resources  also  lie  wholly  unde- 
veloped, and  Turkish  and  Persian  wealth  is  potential 
rather  than  developed.  While  these  nations  are  asking 
to  borrow  a  little  money  here  and  a  little  there  to  pay 
the  interest  on  their  debts,  or  to  quiet  their  creditors 
for  a  brief  time,  there  lie  within  their  borders,  locked 
in  the  soil,  riches  which  should  make  their  citizens 
merchant  princes  of  the  world. 

The  New  Day  and  the  Old  Gospel 

Here  then,  we  have  a  people  living  in  the  midst  of 
a  land  of  untold  natural  possibilities,  yet  with  society 
and  industry  so  little  organized  that  their  wealth  is 
scarcely  touched,  and  life  is  still  in  primitive  sim- 
plicity. While  there  are  Europeanized  cities  along  the 
seacoasts,  with  many  of  the  blessings  and  curses  of 
Western  life,  yet  throughout  the  lands  as  a  whole,  the 
feudal  lord  and  the  peasant  serf,  the  caravan  and  the 
pack  train,  the  village  loom  and  the  craft  of  hand  are 
the  ruling  modes  of  trade  and  industry. 


HOME  LIFE  AND  INDUSTRIES  111 

The  war  has  brought  the  dawn  of  a  new  life.  The 
world  has  become  acquainted  with  the  fertile  plains, 
the  rich  mineral  deposits,  and  the  oil-fields.  No  longer 
will  the  restless  energy  of  the  West  permit  these  natu- 
ral sources  of  wealth  to  lie  idle,  or  the  laborer  to  work 
in  his  crude  and  unproductive  manner.  The  eyes  of 
men  have  seen  the  immeasurable  opportunities  for 
progress  and  production  in  these  lands.1 

This  is  all  going  to  mean  tremendous  changes  in 
the  next  few  years.  The  merchant,  instead  of  being 
willing  to  await  the  slow-moving  camel  train,  will  de- 
mand a  railway;  the  doctor  will  not  go  about  with 
saddle-bags  on  horseback,  but  will  need  an  automobile; 
orders  will  be  flashed  from  city  to  city  by  telegraph 
and  wireless  instead  of  being  carried  by  messenger. 
There  will  be  air  routes  too.  Organized  industrial 
communities  will  spring  up  where  a  mill  by  a  water- 
fall is  spinning  and  weaving  the  cotton  from  the  fields 
of  Mesopotamia  and  the  wool  from  Kurdistan.  This 
means  changed  social  conditions,  a  new  attitude  toward 
morality  and  religion,  less  of  contemplation,  more  of 
action. 

Will  all  these  changes  tend  to  enrich  the  life  of  the 
people?  Would  it  not  be  better  to  preserve  the  old, 
simple,  homely  way  of  doing  things?  Much  of  the 
poetic  in  life  and  the  artistic  in  industry  will  be  lost. 
Yet  these  changes  are  inevitable.  It  is  the  sure  march 
of  events. 

Oriental  lands  which  have  been  more  exposed  than 

1  The  Riddle  of  Nearer  Asia,  Chapter  VIII. 


112  THE  NEAR  EAST 

the  Near  East  to  the  play  of  the  forces  of  modern 
industrialism  have  already  passed  through  the  early 
phases  of  revolution  in  their  economic  life.  It  will 
be  interesting  to  compare  Turkey  and  her  neighbors 
with  Japan,  for  example,  and  to  observe  the  tendencies 
which  are  at  work  in  both  cases  for  the  transforma- 
tion of  the  industrial  order.  Or  compare  Turkey  with 
India.  What  safeguards  are  there  in  either  case  for 
the  protection  of  the  values  in  the  older  civilization? 
What  are  the  resources  of  each  for  meeting  the  new 
demands  imposed  by  a  modern  industrial  organiza- 
tion? 

This  break-up  of  the  old  social  order  is  bound  to 
bring  with  it  new  doubts  and  new  temptations.  Along 
with  the  awakened  interest  in  industry  and  trade  will 
come  a  great  awakening  to  the  need  of  educational 
training.  Of  what  kind  will  this  be,  and  who  shall 
direct  it? 

The  problem  appears  in  that  the  old,  simple  life  and 
methods  are  about  to  give  place  to  more  of  the  com- 
plicated, organized  life  of  the  West.  What  elements 
are  necessary  to  guide  this  new  life  so  that  it  will 
become  strongly  constructive  for  intelligence,  self- 
control,  brotherhood,  justice,  Christian  ideals? 

The  roads  of  Rome,  along  which  the  Apostle  Paul 
and  his  associates  carried  the  vitalizing  gospel  of  the 
Resurrection,  are  about  to  give  place  to  lines  of  steel 
rails  and  highways  for  motor  transit.  Shall  not  these 
new  roads  be  highways  along  which  shall  hasten  the 
feet  of  messengers  of  an  old  gospel  for  a  new  day  ? 


V 

A  CENTURY  OF  MISSIONS 


CHAPTER  FIVE 

A    CENTURY   OF   MISSIONS 

the  slope  of  Mount  Pagus  overlooking  Smyrna 
is  a  grove  of  tall  and  graceful  cypress  trees 
which  attract  the  notice  of  all  travelers  as  they  ap- 
proach the  city.  This  spot  is  venerated  as  the  resting- 
place  of  good  Bishop  Polycarp,  the  martyr,  whose 
sufferings  and  those  of  his  persecuted  flock  come  to 
mind  as  we  read  the  words  of  encouragement  and 
cheer  addressed  to  the  church  of  Smyrna  by  John 
in  the  second  chapter  of  the  book  of  Revelation :  "  I 
know  thy  tribulation.  .  .  .  Fear  not  the  things  which 
thou  art  about  to  suffer.  ...  Be  thou  faithful  unto 
death,  and  I  will  give  thee  the  crown  of  life."  It 
is  a  message  that  abides  in  memory,  constantly  gather- 
ing fresh  and  inspiring  associations,  as  one  reviews 
the  record  of  those  faithful  ones  who  have  given 
themselves  to  the  work  of  making  Christ  live  anew 
in  these  very  lands  where  first  his  church  was 
founded. 

On  approaching  the  city  of  Beirut  one  sees  an- 
other grove  of  dark  green  cypress  trees,  almost  in 

"5 


116  THE  NEAR  EAST 

• 
the  heart  of  this  harbor  city  of  Syria.     Beside  this 

grove  rise  the  belfry  and  tower  of  the  Protestant 
church;  near  by  is  the  great  American  Mission  Press 
from  which  copies  of  Arabic  scripture  are  sent  to  all 
the  Arabic-speaking  world.  But  under  the  cypress 
trees  lie  those  whose  labors  have  made  press  and 
church  and  school  possible. 

There  is  the  grave  of  Pliny  Fisk,  marked  by  a  sim- 
ple marble  slab  giving  the  date  of  his  birth  and  death 
and  recording  the  fact  that  in  1819  he  bade  farewell 
to  his  native  land  and  gave  his  all  in  the  great  service. 
His  comrade,  Levi  Parsons,  is  buried  in  the  Greek 
Orthodox  cemetery  at  Alexandria,  Egypt.  Only  five 
brief  years  of  work  were  granted  these  young  men 
who  came  to  the  East  so  full  of  hope  and  consecration. 
Beside  the  grave  of  Pliny  Fisk  are  the  last  resting- 
places  of  men  who  followed  in  the  path  he  opened 
and  who  were  permitted  to  devote,  some  forty,  some 
fifty,  and  some  sixty  years  to  the  task  of  building 
again  the  waste  places. 

Throughout  these  lands  of  the  Near  East,  from  the 
Sudan  of  Africa  to  the  plateaus  of  Iran,  there  are 
scores  of  men  and  women — preachers,  teachers,  doc- 
tors, nurses — who  are  occupying  strategic  posts  in  the 
lands  these  two  dauntless  young  pioneers  set  out  to 
explore.  A  full  century  of  mission  work,  with  its 
discouragements,  persecutions,  martyrdoms,  achieve- 
ments, has  laid  the  broad  and  deep  foundations  for 
the  building  of  a  Christian  civilization  in  this  new 
day. 


A  CENTURY  OF  MISSIONS  117 

Pioneer  Days 

In  1801  the  first  "  Annual  Report "  of  the  Church 
Missionary  Society  of  London  mentioned  Persia  as 
one  of  the  fields  to  be  occupied.  In  1811  Henry 
Martyn,  serving  as  a  British  army  chaplain,  spent  a 
year  in  Persia  and  translated  the  New  Testament  and 
Psalms  into  that  language.  In  1815  Mr.  Jowett  was 
appointed  to  begin  a  "  Mediterranean  Mission."  But 
there  was  no  permanent  establishment  of  mission  work 
until  1819,  when  the  "  American  Board "  commis- 
sioned Pliny  Fisk  and  Levi  Parsons,  classmates  at 
Middlebury  College,  to  go  to  Turkey.  It  was  no  light 
task  that  was  placed  before  the  two  young  men.  "  You 
will  survey  with  earnest  attention  the  various  tribes 
and  classes  which  dwell  in  that  land  and  the  sur- 
rounding countries.  The  two  grand  inquiries  ever 
present  in  your  minds  will  be,  *  What  good  can  be 
done  ?  '  and  '  By  what  means  ?  '  What  can  be  done 
for  the  Jews  ?  What  for  the  Pagans  ?  What  for  the 
Mohammedans?  What  for  the  Christians  What  for 
the  people  in  Palestine?  What  for  those  in  Egypt, 
in  Syria,  in  Armenia,  in  other  countries  to  which  your 
inquiry  may  be  extended  ?  " 

The  first  twenty  years  of  this  century  of  missions 
was  spent  largely  in  spying  out  the  lands.  The  ac- 
counts of  the  travels,  exploits,  and  adventures  of  these 
intrepid  explorers  are  most  fascinating  and  exciting.1 
The  story  of  Eli  Smith  and  of  H.  G.  A.  Dwight  in 

1  Daybreak  in  Turkey,  Chapter  XII. 


118  THE  NEAR  EAST 

their  journey  from  Constantinople  to  Tabriz,  Persia, 
traveling  2,500  miles  on  horseback  and  1,000  miles 
by  water  through  a  "  wild  country  beset  with  robbers 
and  perils  of  every  kind,"  rivals  any  tale  of  travel 
or  adventure  ever  written. 


Original  Purpose  of  Missions 

There  was  no  notion  at  first  of  establishing  a  Prot- 
estant sect  in  the  Eastern  lands.  The  first  mission- 
aries were  sent  to  Palestine,  Egypt,  and  Asia  Minor 
in  the  hope  of  cooperating  with  the  historic  Christian 
churches  and  helping  them  to  realize  their  opportunity 
and  their  task.  There  was  the  great  Mohammedan 
world,  with  no  proper  witness  being  borne  to  it;  there 
were  the  Jews,  receiving  no  effective  testimony  of 
the  Messiah.  If  only  the  Eastern  churches  could  be 
awakened  to  their  responsibility,  they  would  be  the 
best  channels  of  evangelization. ' 

It  is  not  strange  that  in  the  first  great  wave  of  en- 
thusiasm which  came  with  the  birth  of  the  modern 
missionary  movement,  the  interest  of  Christendom 
should  become  centered  on  the  Bible  lands.  The 
attention  of  Christian  students  was  earnestly  directed 
to  the  churches  which  had  an  unbroken  tradition  from 
the  first  centuries.  The  hope  was  aroused  that  once 
again  the  lands  of  the  East  might  become  a  center 
of  Christian  effort. 

A  hundred  years  ago  very  little  was  really  known 
about  the  land,  the  peoples,  and  the  religions  of  the 


A  CENTURY  OF  MISSIONS  119 

Near  East.  Students  of  church  history  knew  of  the 
early  church  councils  and  creeds,  and  a  study  of  the 
history  of  doctrines  had  given  some  knowledge  of  the 
ancient  heresies  which  had  divided  the  church  of 
Christ  in  the  first  centuries.  The  names  of  Greek, 
Copt,  Armenian,  and  Nestorian  were  known  as  church 
divisions,  but  there  was  no  thorough  acquaintance  with 
their  problems  nor  with  their  relations  toward  their 
leaders.  Therefore,  Parsons  and  Fisk  were  sent  out 
with  the  two  interrogation  points  foremost  in  their 
instructions,  "What  good  can  be  done?"  and  "By 
what  means  ?  " 

Friendly   Welcome 

It  was  this  necessity  for  investigation  and  explora- 
tion which  shaped  the  work  for  the  first  two  decades 
of  mission  activity.  The  early  efforts  were  not  all 
met  with  opposition.  In  1835  Rev.  Justin  Perkins 
and  his  wife  and  Dr.  and  Mrs.  Grant  arrived  in 
Urumia,  Persia,  to  open  work  with  the  Nestorians. 
Attention  had  been  called  to  this  ancient  sect  of 
"  Persian  Christians  "  by  a  paragraph  in  the  writings 
of  a  traveler  and  lecturer,  Dr.  Joseph  Wolf.  These 
American  missionaries  were  cordially  received  by  the 
Nestorians,  and  for  some  time  the  chief  ecclesiastical 
officers  of  the  sect  cooperated  with  them.  The  King 
of  Persia  sent  a  special  firman  (edict)  to  express  his 
pleasure  that  teachers  had  come  from  the  New  World 
to  instruct  his  subjects. 

In  Egypt,  too,  the  early  workers,  while  not  so  cor- 


120  THE  NEAR  EAST 

dially  received  by  the  Coptic  Church,  were  welcomed 
by  Said  Pasha,  ruler  of  the  land.  He  was  very 
anxious  to  secure  European  favor  and  took  pains  to 
protect  these  messengers  from  the  West.  He  granted 
them  an  especially  favorable  building  site  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  Mooski.  This  was  one  of  the  most 
prominent  locations  in  the  city  of  Cairo. 

Periods  of  Development 

The  century  of  missions  in  the  Levant  can  be  di- 
vided roughly  into  three  periods.  The  first,  covering 
a  period  of  perhaps  twenty  years,  was  one  of  ex- 
ploration and  investigation.  The  lands  were  traversed 
from  end  to  end,  central  mission  stations  were  located, 
peoples  and  religions  were  studied,  translations  were 
begun,  and  in  other  ways  pioneer  work  was  estab- 
lished. 

The  second  period  was  one  of  organization.  It 
was  soon  found  necessary  to  depart  from  the  original 
plan  and  to  make  provision  for  an  "  Evangelical  "  or 
Protestant  Church.  Many  persons  from  the  old  sects 
found  in  the  teachings  of  the  missionaries  a  new  re- 
ligious life  and  inspiration.  But  the  old  churches 
were  not  sympathetic  to  the  message  which  the  mis- 
sionaries emphasized;  in  fact,  they  began  to  offer 
objections  and  even  severe  persecutions  to  those  who 
responded  to  the  approaches  of  the  missionaries.  This 
left  the  "  converts  "  with  no  religious  home.  Con- 
sequently, to  meet  the  need  of  those  who,  having  no 


A  CENTURY  OF  MISSIONS  121 

formal  religious  connection  in  these  lands,  had  no 
standing  with  their  government  or  in  the  social  or- 
der, the  first  evangelical  church  was  organized  in  Con- 
stantinople, July  i,  1846.  In  1847  an  official  firman 
was  issued  by  the  Sultan  acknowledging  the  new  de- 
nomination, and  in  1850,  under  pressure  from  foreign 
governments,  the  Sultan  confirmed  the  rights  of 
Protestants.  It  must  be  remembered  in  this  connec- 
tion that  until  1914,  in  spite  of  British  "  occupation," 
Egypt  has  been  a  recognized  part  of  the  Turkish  Em- 
pire. 

This  period  of  organization  was  one  of  anxiety 
and  often  of  persecution.  Many  sincere  Christians 
who  wished  to  follow  the  evangelical  faith  were  ex- 
communicated by  their  ancestral  churches.  Never- 
theless, great  gains  were  accomplished :  schools  and 
hospitals  were  opened,  translations  of  the  scriptures 
were  completed  and  published,  and  Christian  literature 
of  a  general  character  was  written  and  circulated 
in  considerable  quantities.  At  length  the  new  work 
was  recognized,  and  missionaries  were  able  to  give 
their  attention  more  or  less  freely  to  the  enlargement 
of  their  task. 

The  third  period  has  been  one  of  expansion.  Hav- 
ing established  their  right  to  exist  and  having  discov- 
ered the  most  effective  means  of  approach  to  the 
various  groups,  the  time  came  for  the  missionaries 
to  "  lengthen  their  cords  and  strengthen  their  stakes." 
This  last  era  has  witnessed  a  large  increase  in  mis- 
sionary forces,  the  founding  of  a  number  of  institu- 


122  THE  NEAR  EAST 

tions  of  higher  learning  for  both  men  and  women, 
the  opening  of  orphanages  and  industrial  schools,  a 
great  increase  in  the  work  of  publication  and  distri- 
bution, the  establishment  of  medical  schools,  the  train- 
ing of  nurses,  and  a  great  advancement  in  hospital 
facilities. 

A  still  larger  opportunity  now  opens  with  the  lib- 
eration of  forces  which  the  war  has  brought  to  the 
Near  East.  The  whole  mission  policy  must  be  adapted 
to  meet  a  changed  order.  The  great  values  attained 
in  the  past  by  so  much  of  hardship  and  sacrifice  must 
not  be  forgotten,  and  the  vision  of  the  possibilities 
in  the  new  day  must  not  be  allowed  to  grow  dim. 

Missionary  Contact  with  Eastern  Christianity 

At  the  conclusion  of  an  especially  helpful  series  of 
meetings  during  the  Week  of  Prayer  in  the  American 
College  in  Beirut,  a  Greek  student  from  Cyprus  came 
to  me  with  the  following  problem :  "  My  father  be- 
longs to  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church,  my  mother  is 
a  Protestant;  which  Church  should  I  attend?  "  It  was 
a  real  question  from  an  earnest  inquirer.  How  would 
you  have  answered  it  ?  My  reply  was,  "  Go  to  that 
Church  which  helps  you  most  to  have  an  intimate, 
personal  relationship  with  God."  The  student's  an- 
swer was,  "  I  have  always  been  to  the  Greek  Church, 
but  have  never  heard  such  words  as  are  spoken  in 
these  meetings." 

In  a  word  this  is  the  story  of  the  contact  of  mis- 


A  CENTURY  OF  MISSIONS  123 

sions  with  the  Eastern  churches.  "  We  find  no 
occasion  to  touch  ecclesiastical  matters.  We  direct 
men  to  their  own  hearts  and  to  the  Bible,"  wrote  Dr. 
Goodell,  one  of  the  first  and  ablest  missionaries,  and 
who  has  been  called  "  the  father  of  the  American 
Mission  and  the  author  of  its  policy."  From  the  be- 
ginning of  the  work  the  theory  has  been  not  to  prose- 
lyte, not  to  multiply  sects,  not  to  establish  a  Protestant 
or  mission  church  as  long  as  such  action  could  be 
avoided.  Inquirers  have  constantly  been  urged  to 
remain  in  their  own  churches  and  there  exercise  them- 
selves for  the  regeneration  of  their  own  faiths. 

This  spirit  of  missions  in  the  Near  East  in  rela- 
tion to  the  Eastern  churches  must  always  be  remem- 
bered because  these  questions  are  constantly  arising: 
why  should  Christian  missionaries  be  sent  to  a  land 
where  there  already  exist  churches  as  old  as  Chris- 
tianity itself?  Why  should  we  try  to  impose  on  these 
Oriental  people  a  Western  church?  There  has  been 
no  imposing  of  a  Protestant  Church;  it  has  been  or- 
ganized in  response  to  a  demand  otherwise  impossible 
to  meet. 

In  his  book,  Daybreak  in  Turkey?  Dr.  James  L. 
Barton  graphically  describes  the  final  break  of  the 
storm  of  persecution  which  left  no  other  course  to 
those  touched  with  a  desire  for  reform.  "  On  Sunday 
morning,  January  25,  1846,  at  the  close  of  the  regular 
service  in  the  Patriarchal  Church  (Armenian  Grego- 
rian in  Constantinople),  darkening  the  house  and  draw- 

1  Chapter  XV. 


124  THE  NEAR  EAST 

ing  a  great  veil  in  front  of  the  main  altar,  a  bull 
of  excision  was  read  against  Priest  Vartanes,  an  evan- 
gelical, and  all  of  the  followers  of  the  '  modern  sec- 
taries.' Excoriated  by  every  conceivable  epithet  of 
condemnation,  he  "was  expelled  from  the  Church  and 
forbidden  as  '  a  devil  and  the  child  of  the  devil  to 
enter  into  the  company  of  believers.'  All  the  faithful 
were  forbidden  to  admit  him  into  their  dwellings  or 
to  receive  his  salutation  or  to  look  upon  his  face." 
This  was  followed  by  a  severe  persecution  of  all  who 
professed  evangelical  principles.  They  were  to  be 
"  forever  cast  out  from  society,  from  every  social 
privilege,  .and  from  the  Church."  When  one  re- 
members that  in  the  Turkish  Empire  every  non-Mos- 
lem could  obtain  his  rights  with  the  government  only 
through  the  head  of  his  Church,  the  severity  of  this 
decree  of  excommunication  becomes  apparent. 

The  only  way  to  secure  for  these  evangelicals  the 
rights  and  privileges  of  citizenship  was  to  form  a  new 
organization  which  should  be  recognized  by  the  Sul- 
tan and  established  by  imperial  decree  as  one  of  the 
religions  of  the  Empire. 

Often,  walking  along  the  Lebanon  Mountains,  I 
have  beheld  on  almost  innumerable  hilltops  the  mas- 
sive stone  buildings  of  monasteries  and  convents.  All 
the  sects  of  the  Eastern  church  are  represented  in 
these  institutions.  Each  building  houses  a  meager 
handful  of  monks  or  nuns  counting  their  beads  and 
attending  the  various  services  of  the  chapels.  Most 
of  them  are  surrounded  with  extensive  lands  from  the 


A  CENTURY  OF  MISSIONS  125 

incomes  of  which  the  monasteries  are  supported.  And 
as  I  have  looked  at  those  great  buildings  and  rich 
estates,  have  listened  to  the  music  of  monastery  bells 
echoing  and  re-echoing  from  hilltop  and  valley,  I 
have  seen  a  vision  "  on  time's  horizon  "  of  those  in- 
stitutions being  centers  of  light  and  vital  power,  liv- 
ing witnesses  to  the  truth  divine.  An  idle  vision? 
Yet  that  was  and  has  been  the  purpose  of  missionary 
effort  for  a  hundred  years. 

The  Protestant  Church 

The  Protestant  sect  is  not  large  in  any  of  the  lands 
of  the  Levant  and  probably  never  will  be  unless  there 
comes  a  great  accession  of  members  from  the  non- 
Christian  religions.  But  it  has  served  as  a  place  of 
refuge  for  those  who  could  not  find  an  "  intimate  re- 
lationship with  God  "  in  the  old  churches,  and  it  has 
been  a  leaven  for  promoting  religious  reform  and  for 
securing  applied  Christianity  in  daily  life. 

Since  the  days  of  the  great  ecumenical  councils 
of  the  church,  the  religious  leaders  of  these  Eastern 
lands  have  been  insistent  upon  the  philosophical  dis- 
tinctions of  theological  statements.  This  strength 
of  purpose  has  been  the  great  weakness  of  the  East- 
ern church.  One  of  the  dangers  which  has  beset 
the  Protestant  Church  has  been  the  temptation  to 
introduce  another  "  system  "  of  metaphysical  theol- 
ogy, a  Western  philosophy,  instead  of  holding  to  the 
simplest  form  of  expression  of  Christlike  faith  and  life. 
There  has  also  been  the  danger  of  trying  to  measure 


126  THE  NEAR  EAST 

the  succeess  of  work  acco.  iplished  by  counting  the 
number  of  accessions  to  the  Protestant  roll. 

Missionary  'Achievements 

In  estimating  the  achievements  of  missionary  effort 
there  must  ever  be  kept  in  mind  that  leavening  influence 
which  cannot  be  reduced  to  figures  or  placed  in  re- 
ports, yet  which  constitutes  the  fundamental  work  in 
contact  with  these  Eastern  churches.  And  this  influ- 
ence has  been  effective,  particularly  in  the  Gregorian 
(Armenian)  Church.  Before  the  war  Protestant  pas- 
tors frequently  preached  in  Gregorian  pulpits,  and 
there  were  other  interchanges  of  mutual  helpfulness. 
The  Bible  was  circulating  freely,  and  there  was  a 
growing  spirituality. 

In  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church,  especially  among 
the  Greek-speaking  population,  there  is  one  great  hin- 
drance to  reform.  Religion,  with  them,  is  closely 
linked  with  patriotism.  Many  religious  customs,  rites, 
and  ceremonies  are  at  the  same  time  symbolic  of  his- 
torical and  national  events,  so  that  any  attempt  to 
alter  or  abandon  or  reform  them  strikes  at  the  heart 
of  patriotism.  This  makes  the  work  of  a  reformer 
very  hard.  To  remedy  this,  scientific  education  is 
probably  the  best  solution. 

Oriental  Church  Membership 

In  all  the  Eastern  churches  a  child  is  born  into  the 
church.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  "  joining  the 


A  CENTURY  OF  MISSIONS  127 

church."  Every  child  is  a  church  member.  The 
church  meets  the  individual  at  every  step  of  his  life 
between  birth  and  death.  So  the  church  life  becomes 
the  national  life. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  how  difficult  is  the  prob- 
lem of  influencing  the  old  churches,  and  yet  how 
greatly  they  are  in  need  of  influence.  However,  the 
Greek  Orthodox  Church  has  been  fairly  cordial  in 
its  relationships  to  missionaries.  It  is  especially  so 
towards  the  Anglican  or  Episcopal  Church. 

What  will  be  the  effect  of  the  trials  of  the  war? 
Will  the  fellowship  of  suffering  and  the  ministry  of 
helpfulness  break  the  barriers  of  ecclesiastical  lines 
and  bring  about  a  desire  for  united  spiritual  regen- 
eration, or  will  the  development  of  new  political  op- 
portunities merely  intensify  the  desire  for  sectarian 
preferment?  Will  establishment  of  local  autonomies 
tend  to  produce  closer  cooperation,  or  will  it  but 
intensify  the  national  or  racial  lines  and  so  arouse 
a  greater  spirit  of  opposition  to  religious  suggestion 
from  abroad?  These  are  questions  which  Christian 
people  of  the  West  must  consider  persistently  and 
intelligently  in  the  years  following  the  war. 

Missionary  Contact  with  Islam 

In  the  history  of  modern  missions  probably  no 
more  difficult  and  complicated  work  has  ever  been 
undertaken.  The  domination  of  Mohammedan  rule 
has  been  felt  everywhere.  Now  that  rule  is  broken, 


128  THE  NEAR  EAST 

and  under  the  patronage  of  a  League  of  Nations,  the 
right  of  "self-determination"  is  to  be  given  to  in- 
dividuals as  well  as  to  races. 

Under  the  protection  of  British  influence  Egypt 
and  India  have  offered  fields  of  contact  between  Chris- 
tian missions  and  Islam,  and  the  result  has  been  most 
gratifying  and  instructive.  But  all  the  time  there 
has  remained  that  great  central  block  of  the  Turkish 
Empire  where  political  power  and  religious  law  have 
been  one  and  the  same.1 

And  Arabia,  great  Arabia,  "the  cradle  of  Islam," 
with  its  6,000,000  people  solidly  and  fanatically  Mo- 
hammedan! What  a  difference  the  opening  of  the 
Suez  Canal  made  to  Arabia  fifty  years  ago!  What 
a  difference  the  results  of  this  war  makes  to  Arabia! 
This  mysterious  Arabia,  with  its  language,  its  re- 
ligion, its  wonderfully  virile  people!  Against  its 
border  mountains  and  on  its  desert  sands  the  waves 
of  surrounding  civilization  have  beaten  in  vain  since 
time  began.  It  still  maintains  its  splendid  iso- 
lation. 

Does  the  Kingdom  of  the  Hedjaz  in  alliance  with 
Great  Britain  for  the  overthrow  of  the  Turk  offer 
an  opening  door?  Does  British  occupation  of  Meso- 
potamia swing  wide  an  Eastern  gate?  Will  Syria, 
reorganized  and  evangelized,  give  approach  from  the 
West?  Out  of  Arabia  went  forth  Mohammed  and 
his  followers,  and  they  all  but  overran  the  world. 
Has  the  day  of  Arabia  passed,  or  is  it  about  to  dawn? 2 

1  Christian  Approach  to  Islam,  Chapter  XV. 
3  Arabia,   Chapter  XXXV. 


A  CENTURY  OF  MISSIONS  129 

And  circling  round  this  "  cradle  of  Islam  "  stand 
the  races  and  peoples  of  the  Sudan,  Egypt,  Syria, 
Anatolia,  Mesopotamia,  Persia,  and  India,  three  quar- 
ters of  them  intensely,  conscientiously  Mohammedan. 
Intermingled  with  them  for  thirteen  centuries  have 
lived  the  priests  and  members  of  the  Eastern  Church. 
They  have  held  their  own,  but  have  not  increased. 
Has  Christianity  been  impotent  in  the  presence  of 
Islam?  Has  that  kingdom,  "like  leaven  which  a 
woman  took  and  hid  in  three  measures  of  meal,"  lost 
its  power?  Has  the  salt  lost  its  savor,  or  has  the 
light  been  hidden  under  a  basket?  What  has  failed 
for  thirteen  centuries? 

Girdling  this  same  land  are  the  beacon-lights  at 
Assiut  and  Cairo,  the  Arabic  Press  of  Beirut,  the 
Bible  House  of  Constantinople,  the  missions  at  Tabriz, 
Teheran,  and  Basrat,  Bahrien,  and  Aden,  and  the 
schools  and  colleges  and  medical  stations  at  impor- 
tant centers  of  the  shifting  life  of  the  East. 

"  Modern  missions  in  Turkey  are  an  attempt  to 
show  to  all  in  that  country  what  true  Christianity 
means  in  the  individual,  in  the  family,  and  in  society. 
It  is  not  an  attempt  to  convince  the  Mohammedan  by 
argument  that  Mohammed  is  '  the  false  prophet '  and 
that  Jesus  Christ  is  God.  Such  an  attempt  would 
result  only  in  failure."  *  However  beautiful  the  rit- 
uals of  the  Eastern  churches  may  be  and  however 
expressive  of  a  deeply  religious  significance,  they  have 
nevertheless  utterly  failed  in  their  contact  with  Mo- 

1  Daybreak  in  Turkey,  page  114. 


130  THE  NEAR  EAST 

hammedanism.  Modern  missions  are  trying  to  give 
a  truer  picture  of  the  application  of  religion  to  the 
daily  life,  not  theoretic  but  real. 


The  Results  of  Work  among  Mohammedans 

What  has  already  been  achieved  in  this  contact 
with  Islam?  As  far  as  conversion  from  Mohamme- 
danism to  Christianity  is  concerned,  it  has  been  en- 
tirely individual;  here  a  convert  and  there  a  convert, 
sometimes  a  prominent  Moslem  scholar  or  noted 
leader,  sometimes  a  robber  or  brigand,  sometimes  a 
humble,  earnest  peasant.  Comparatively,  in  numbers, 
the  list  is  short.  But  especially  in  Egypt,  where  there 
has  been  more  freedom  of  religious  choice,  there  has 
been  considerable  success  in  gaining  a  hearing,  and 
many  Moslems  have  attended  mission  meetings.  Mo- 
hammedan students  have  been  coming  in  increasing 
numbers  to  the  mission  schools,  and  the  mission  clinics, 
and  hospitals  minister  to  fully  as  many  Moslems  as 
Christians.  But  as  for  distinct  change  of  religious 
profession  there  has  been  only  the  occasional  convert, 
no  movement  of  large  groups. 

Yet  spiritual  achievements  are  not  to  be  measured 
by  numbers.  In  the  case  of  Islam,  it  is  the  seed 
growing  secretly,  "  first  the  blade,  then  the  ear,  then 
the  full  corn  in  the  ear."  It  will  not  be  an  achieve- 
ment for  missions — though  it  would  look  well  in 
reports — to  secure  a  simple  transfer  of  large  numbers 
from  the  name  Mohammedan  to  Christian.  There 


A  CENTURY  OF  MISSIONS  131 

is  too  much  of  the  mere  name  "  Christian  "  in  the 
East  already.  Islam  is  perhaps  God's  protest  against 
the  name  "  Christian  "  with  no  reality  behind  it. 

The  real  achievement  of  this  century  of  missions 
lies  in  the  giving  of  a  new  content  to  the  conception 
of  religion.  "  Not  every  one  that  saith  unto  me 
Lord,  Lord;  but  he  that  doeth  the  will  of  my  Father," 
is  the  needed  lesson  in  the  East  rather  than  the  mere 
change  of  religious  name.  And  to  the  insistence  on 
this  teaching  the  missionaries  may  point  for  the  jus- 
tification of  their  one  hundred  years  of  labor. 

But  there  are  also  material  accomplishments  of  no 
mean  proportions.  Beginning  at  Khartum  at  the 
south  and  dotted  along  the  whole  extent  of  the  valley 
of  the  Nile,  up  through  Palestine  and  Syria,  across 
Asia  Minor  to  Constantinople,  and  eastward  along 
the  Black  Sea  to  Tabriz  and  Teheran  in  Persia,  down 
the  valley  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and  even  on 
the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Red  Sea  are 
hundreds  of  stations  occupied  by  a  score  of  mission 
societies  from  America  and  England.  There  are 
many  native  Protestant  churches  which  are  strong, 
aggressive,  and  self-supporting,  and  a  much  larger 
number  not  so  far  advanced,  but  the  center  of  new 
spiritual  ideals.  Every  prominent  center  has  a  hos- 
pital, boarding  schools  for  boys  and  girls,  and  a 
network  of  primary  schools  in  the  surrounding  dis- 
tricts. There  are  no  less  than  twelve  colleges  for 
men  and  women,  there  are  training  schools  for  nurses, 
and  schools  of  medicine,  pharmacy,  dentistry,  peda- 


132  THE  NEAR  EAST 

gogy,  commerce,  engineering,  and  theology.  There 
are  great  publishing  establishments  at  Cairo,  Beirut, 
and  Constantinople.  The  Bible  has  been  translated 
into  every  language  and  is  distributed  by  sale  and 
by  gift  in  every  part  of  every  district.  And  in  all 
these  stations  there  are  devoted  native  preachers  and 
Bible  women  who  are  continually  going  about  amid 
hardships  and  dangers  to  proclaim  the  good  news. 

These  advances  in  civilization  have  not  been  ac- 
complished without  overcoming  difficulties  of  every 
kind.  There  has  been  determined  opposition  on  the 
part  of  governments  and  of  ecclesiastical  authorities 
and  organizations.  There  have  been  edicts  of  ex- 
communication against  helpers,  attempts  to  invalidate 
Protestant  marriage  ceremonies,  imprisonments,  mar- 
tyrdoms, boycott,  and  other  persecutions  both  petty 
and  great. 

Besides  these  antagonisms  it  has  been  necessary  to 
contend  with  the  difficulties  of  travel,  of  climate,  and 
of  diseases  such  as  cholera,  plague,  and  typhus.  There 
have  been  long  journeys  through  wild  mountainous 
country  infested  with  robber  bands.  Time  and  again 
the  missionaries  and  their  helpers  have  been  face  to 
face  with  death. 

Yet  despite  these  discouragements,  they  have  kept 
a  straight  course,  having  but  one  purpose;  to  insist 
on  a  vital  religion  coupled  with  the  every-day  life. 
So  successful  has  been  this  quiet,  persistent  effort 
that  when  the  great  crisis  came  during  the  war,  it 
was  to  the  missionaries  that  all  classes  turned  for 


A  CENTURY  OF  MISSIONS  133 

counsel  and  aid.  When  the  part  they  played  in  the 
war  is  fully  written,  it  will  be  a  record  of  splendid 
heroism,  perseverance,  and  faithful  service  under  con- 
ditions of  privation  and  suffering  only  partly  known 
as  yet. 

What  of  the  New  Day? 

A  doctor  from  Asia  Minor  writes :  "  The  greatest 
problem  of  all,  that  which  grips  my  heart  with  a 
mighty  grip,  is  how  to  bring  the  Gospel  to  the  Mos- 
lem. Specifically  for  me,  how  to  bring  it  to  the 
Turk.  I  do  not  say,  Shall  we  do  it?  That  is  a 
foregone  conclusion.  We  must.  How  shall  we  do 
it  best,  is  our  problem." 

After  the  early  surveys  of  these  mission  fields  and 
after  repeated  attempts  to  get  a  hearing  from  Islam, 
the  conclusion  was  reached  that  the  time  had  not  yet 
come  for  reaching  Mohammedans.  But  the  growing 
success  of  the  work  of  missions  in  Egypt,  Arabia, 
and  Persia  has  indicated  that  the  day  of  opportunity 
is  beginning  to  dawn. 

Now  come  the  disintegrating  effects  of  social  con- 
tact with  Europe,  a  growing  spirit  of  skepticism  on 
the  part  of  Moslems  who  have  touched  Western 
thought,  the  revelation  of  a  new  meaning  in  religion 
as  seen  in  Protestant  schools  and  churches,  the  in- 
fluence of  the  spirit  of  Christ  in  the  ministry  of  heal- 
ing, and  the  martyr  witness  of  the  Armenian  nation 
as  a  whole  when  a  change  of  faith  would  have  saved 
life. 


134  THE  NEAR  EAST 

Last  of  all  comes  the  final  disruption  of  Islam  as 
a  political  power.  Dr.  W.  S.  Dodd  writes  from 
Konia:  "The  failure  of  Pan-Islam,  the  overthrow 
of  the  Caliphate  and  the  transfer  of  the  leadership 
of  Islam  to  the  Arabs,  the  inauguration  of  some  meas- 
ure of  justice  in  government,  and  actual  religious 
liberty  will  give  the  opportunity  for  which  we  have 
been  preparing  all  these  years." 

To  a  people  who  have  believed  so  thoroughly  in  the 
doctrine  of  religious  conversion  by  the  sword,  the 
complete  overthrow  of  Moslem  political  power  must 
come  as  an  argument  for  Christianity  as  it  would  not 
come  to  the  Western  mind.  The  triumph  of  Ger- 
many would  have  been  an  argument  for  Islam;  the 
defeat  of  Germany  and  her  allies  is  an  argument  for 
Christ.  The  victory  of  the  West  over  the  East,  too, 
will  mean  a  great  stimulus  to  the  desire  for  enlight- 
enment, for  education. 

There  still  remains  the  problem  of  new  life  in  the 
old  forms.  Will  not  the  political,  social,  and  indus- 
trial changes  necessitate  a  new  point  of  view  and  a 
more  vital  contact  of  the  old  churches  with  the  new 
thought  and  new  conditions?  More  general  educa- 
tion will  do  much,  and  as  the  demand  lessens  for 
a  mediator  between  individual  and  government,  which 
place  the  church  has  filled  heretofore,  the  individual 
will  be  more  free  to  follow  the  dictates  of  his  own 
reason  and  his  own  conscience.  Religion  will  then 
tend  to  assume  its  rightful  place  of  individual  judg- 
ment, of  individual  relationship  and  responsibility 


A  CENTURY  OF  MISSIONS  135 

to  God,  unhampered  by  dictates  of  personal  interest 
At  this  critical  time  of  danger  it  is  the  opportunity 
and  privilege  of  the  West  to  give  back  to  the  East 
the  gift  of  a  living,  personal,  reasonable  Christ.1 


A  Missionary  Hero  in  the  War  Crisis 

We  were  looking  at  a  picture  of  an  evacuation  in 
northern  France.  The  villagers  were  toiling  along 
the  road,  some  in  carts,  some  in  barrows,  some  carry- 
ing packs  on  their  backs,  others  driving  cattle  before 
them  and  leading  little  children.  The  blazing  homes 
were  behind  them;  distress  and  despair  were  on  their 
faces.  My  friend  turned  to  me  with  the  remark, 
"  I  cannot  sense  it,  can  you  ?  " 

There  was  a  procession  not  unlike  this  from  the 
city  of  Urumia.  In  spite  of  all  efforts  to  reassure 
the  people,  panic  had  spread  among  them  and  the 
whole  Christian  community  of  the  city,  some  sixty 
thousand,  hurriedly  gathered  a  few  belongings  and  at 
daylight  set  forth  on  the  long,  long  journey  of  twenty- 
five  days'  toilsome  march.  The  flight  led  through  des- 
olate mountain  defiles,  past  villages  filled  with  hostile 
peoples,  with  enemies  behind  and  on  either  hand  seek- 
ing to  plunder  and  kill.  A  few  articles  of  necessity 
tied  in  a  bundle,  a  bit  of  food  loaded  on  a  donkey, 
what  money  could  be  obtained  hidden  in  a  girdle, 
and  the  march  of  death  began. 

A  few  irregular  bands  of  armed  men  headed  the 

1  Christian  Approach  to  Islam,   Chapter  XX. 


136  THE  NEAR  EAST 

procession  as  a  guard.  Inasmuch  as  they  attacked 
and  plundered  every  one  before  them,  the  long  strag- 
gling line  of  women  and  children  at  the  end  of  the 
procession  were  left  to  the  mercy  of  hordes  of  vil- 
lagers thirsting  for  revenge.  Consequently  there  were 
constant  attacks  on  the  rear  of  the  fleeing  column. 

But  there  was  one  rear  guard.  After  months  of 
unceasing  effort  in  the  city,  where  he  had  been  the 
friend,  protector,  and  counselor  of  all  classes,  when 
he  saw  that  panic  had  seized  the  terrified  people  and 
that  the  flight  from  the  city  had  begun,  Dr.  Shedd 
hastily  gathered  a  few  belongings  into  a  covered  Red 
Cross  cart  and,  accompanied  by  his  wife,  set  forth 
with  his  people  determined  to  shepherd  them  to  the 
very  end. 

There  were  frequent  attacks  from  roving  bands  of 
Kurds  and  Turks.  Men  were  killed  and  stripped,  and 
women  were  shot.  There  were  constant  firing  and 
scenes  of  untold  hardship  and  suffering.  But  Dr. 
Shedd  was  always  on  horseback,  now  cheering  the 
people  at  this  point,  now  helping  a  little  sick  child 
there,  again  rallying  a  few  gunmen  to  beat  off  an 
attack,  at  another  time  parleying  with  the  enemy.  He 
was  everywhere  at  once. 

And  so  the  long  procession  wound  its  way  over 
plain  and  mountain  and  at  last  neared  a  small  camp 
of  British  soldiers  on  their  way  to  the  rescue,  Dr.  and 
Mrs.  Shedd  coming  last  of  all. 

There  had  been  a  week  of  this  journey  following 
months  of  similar  work  in  the  city.  Dr.  Shedd  was 


A  CENTURY  OF  MISSIONS  137 

worn  with  fatigue  and  anxiety.  The  sixth  day  out 
he  fell  ill  with  cholera.  That  night  the  English  camp 
was  attacked,  and  the  procession  moved  on  again 
through  the  darkness,  over  a  rough  road.  Except  for 
her  servants,  Mrs.  Shedd  was  alone  through  the  night 
vigil  with  her  husband.  There  was  no  medicine,  no 
doctor,  not  even  a  lantern  to  shed  a  ray  of  light  on 
the  sick  one.  With  Mrs.  Shedd  hoping,  longing  for 
assistance,  the  cart  rumbled  on;  but  before  dawn 
Dr.  Shedd  had  breathed  his  last. 

In  the  early  morning,  with  a  little  adz  and  their 
bare  hands  they  hollowed  out  a  grave  on  the  moun- 
tainside, read  a  few  words  from  St.  Paul's  chapter 
on  the  Resurrection,  and  hurried  on. 

A  rude  cross  on  a  mountain  cliff,  a  rough  pencil 
sketch  by  a  British  army  officer,  a  scarcely  perceptible 
mound  of  earth  by  the  roadside,  these  are  the  guides 
to  the  grave  of  William  A.  Shedd,  missionary  of 
Urumia,  Persia. 

"  Be  thou  faithful  unto  death  and  I  will  give  thee 
the  crown  of  life." 

Dr.  Shedd  had  entered  upon  his  life  work  with 
the  incomparable  asset  of  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the 
language  and  the  people.  He  was  one  of  them,  for 
he  was  born  in  Persia,  being  the  eldest  child  of 
American  missionaries  in  Urumia.  He  knew  well  the 
Persian,  Turkish,  Kurdish,  and  Syriac  languages  and 
was  a  thorough  student  of  Hebrew  and  Arabic.  For 
twenty-six  years  he  labored  at  his  post  as  treasurer, 
author,  administrator,  teacher,  preacher,  counselor. 


138  THE  NEAR  EAST 

He  was  trusted  by  the  people  and  was  the  political 
representative  of  the  mission  with  the  government 
and  the  political  guide  and  counselor  of  the  Syrian 
people.  He  was  permitted  to  preach  the  Gospel  not 
only  in  the  evangelical  but  also  in  the  pulpits  of  the 
ancient  Syriac  churches.  The  Presbyterian  Board 
writes,  "  We  have  suffered  the  loss  of  one  of  the 
ablest  and  most  useful  missionaries  ever  sent  out 
by  the  churches  of  America  to  the  foreign  field." 

One  might  rewrite  the  eleventh  chapter  of  Hebrews 
with  well-known  names  from  modern  annals  of  Chris- 
tian workers  in  Bible  lands,  choosing  a  score  of 
heroes  from  the  living  and  the  dead.  Then  the  chap- 
ter should  close  with  the  ever  modern,  stirring  appeal 
of  the  twelfth  chapter,  "  Therefore  seeing  we  are 
compassed  about  with  so  great  a  cloud  of  witnesses, 
...  let  us  run  with  patience  the  race  that  is  set  be- 
fore us,  looking  unto  Jesus  the  author  and  perfecter 
of  our  faith." 


VI 


WESTERN  INFLUENCE  ON  EASTERN 
EDUCATION 


CHAPTER  SIX 

WESTERN   INFLUENCE  ON   EASTERN   EDUCATION 

AT  the  busiest  corner  of  the  crowded  bazaar  stands 
the  town  mosque.  Through  the  open  door  it 
looks  bright  and  clean  with  its  simple  white-washed 
walls  and  its  fresh  straw  matting  and  scattered  prayer 
rugs  on  the  floor.  From  the  little  gallery  near  the  top 
of  the  shapely  minaret  the  muezzin  sends  forth  his  call 
to  prayer,  and  the  faithful,  in  shop  or  field  or  home, 
leave  off  working  for  a  few  moments  and  observe  the 
prescribed  form  of  prayer.  From  nearby  shops  and 
balconied  houses  a  few  of  the  most  devout  come  to  the 
mosque,  perform  the  ceremonial  ablutions  in  the  little 
stone-curbed  pool  of  the  courtyard,  and  punctiliously 
go  through  the  prayers  with  the  imam  who,  in  his 
black  robe  and  great  white  turban,  looks  the  picture  of 
dignity  and  decorum. 

The  'School  in  the  Mosque 

Beside  the  mosque  is  the  schoolroom.     The  stone 
floor  here  is  also  covered  with  straw  matting.     The 

141 


142  THE  NEAR  EAST 

schoolmaster,  a  white-turbaned  mullah,  sits  cross- 
legged  on  the  floor.  Around  him  are  grouped  twenty- 
five,  thirty,  forty  boys,  all  cross-legged  on  the  floor. 
Before  the  teacher  is  spread  an  open  book,  and  he  is 
swaying  slightly  forward  and  backward  while  intoning 
verses  from  the  Koran.  Following  their  leader,  the 
boys  also  are  moving  gently  back  and  forth  while  they 
repeat  the  words  of  the  master.  Occasionally  some 
young  mischief  shies  a  green  berry  at  a  fly  dozing  be- 
side the  window  or  at  a  lizard  that  is  inquisitive 
enough  to  put  his  head  in  at  the  open  door.  The  boy 
may  get  a  sharp  rap  over  the  knuckles  from  the  ever- 
ready  rod  or  a  box  on  the  ear,  then  the  incident  is 
closed  and  the  lesson  goes  on. 

Reading  and  reciting  verses  from  the  Koran,  a 
little  arithmetic,  and  instruction  in  forming  the  beau- 
tiful Arabic  letters  make  up  the  curriculum  of  one  of 
these  primitive  schools,  and  constitute  the  only  educa- 
tion received  by  the  majority  of  the  youth  of  Moslem 
lands. 

The  memory  method  is  followed  exclusively.  The 
pupils  learn  to  repeat  by  rote  the  assigned  passages. 
Discipline  is  maintained  by  means  of  stern  repressive 
measures.  That  student  is  highest  who  sits  the  stillest 
and  repeats  the  most  glibly.  A  great  deal  of  the  work 
is  carried  on  in  unison,  and  studying  in  general  is 
done  in  a  monotone.  One  can  detect  the  presence  of 
a  mosque  school  some  distance  away  by  the  droning 
sound  of  many  voices  going  through  the  lessons  of 
the  day. 


WESTERN  INFLUENCE  ON  EASTERN  EDUCATION    143 

The  Moslem  University 

Now  enlarge  the  dome  on  the  village  mosque,  add 
two  or  three  minarets,  increase  the  number  of  students 
from  twenty  to  ten  thousand,  and  you  have  the  great 
Moslem  University  of  Cairo.  There  are  the  same 
white-turbaned  teachers,  and  fundamentally  the  same 
curriculum :  the  Koran,  the  study  of  Islamic  tradition, 
commentaries  on  mathematics,  logic,  philosophy,  and 
disputation. 

This  form  of  education  is  thorough  enough  for  its 
own  purpose,  which  is  to  produce  a  student  who  can 
write  faultless  Arabic,  who  can  quote  whole  chapters 
from  the  Koran  and  the  traditions,  and  who  can  dis- 
cuss a  point  of  law  ad  infinitum;  but  it  is  an  educa- 
tion that  is  looking  to  the  past,  not  to  the  future.  It 
is  an  education  with  no  interrogation  point.  There 
is  no  challenging  of  theories,  no  questioning  of  tradi- 
tions, no  outlook  into  social  movements,  no  testing  of 
accepted  doctrines  by  new  discoveries.  This  education 
which  glorifies  and  perpetuates  the  old,  opposes  the 
new. 

The  School  in  the  Church 

Under  a  great  spreading  oak  in  Syria,  beside  a  gray 
stone  church  perhaps  centuries  old,  is  gathered  a  group 
of  boys,  seated  on  stones  or  on  the  ground.  It  is 
summer,  and  the  black-robed  priest  has  moved  his 
school  from  the  dimly-lighted,  stuffy  schoolroom  ad- 
joining the  church  to  this  cool,  picturesque  spot.  What 


144  THE  NEAR  EAST 

a  place  for  nature  study,  with  birds  and  bees,  with 
leafy  trees  and  blossoming  plants !  Here  Nature  her- 
self provides  the  text-books  for  geography  and 
geology;  spread  before  the  very  eyes  of  the  pupils 
are  great  gorges,  rocky  ledges,  mountain  streams,  and 
in  the  distance,  the  sea.  O  for  a  schoolmaster  with 
the  instinct  of  Pestalozzi ! 

But  what  are  the  lessons  these  boys  are  learning? 
Questions  and  answers  from  the  church  catechism, 
memory  verses  from  some  ancient  father  whose  words 
are  repeated  from  a  worn-out  book,  writing,  and 
simple  numbers.  When  the  child's  eyes  wander  per- 
force to  the  place  where  bees  are  gathering  honey  or 
where  the  mountain  stream  is  grinding  away  at  the 
limestone  ledge,  a  sudden  thump  from  a  ruler,  or  a 
sharp  reprimand  calls  back  the  wandering  attention  to 
the  serious  work  of  the  class.  This  is  the  old 
church  school,  differing  from  the  school  in  the  mosque 
only  in  the  books  used  and  in  the  dress  of  the 
teacher. 

One  teacher  who  had  been  master  of  the  village 
school  for  forty  years  used  to  boast  that  he  had  worn 
out  a  table  every  year  with  the  thumps  of  his  ferrule 
upon  it.  But  he  was  held  in  universal  respect  by  the 
village,  and  parents  would  never  think  of  having  their 
children  taught  by  another  master.  But  at  length, 
Father  Time  came  to  the  rescue  of  the  children  and 
gathered  him  home.  Still  it  was  a  school,  and  boys 
and  girls  have  learned  to  read  and  write  and  add  and 
subtract  and  to  this  extent  have  been  enabled  to  share 


WESTERN  INFLUENCE  ON  EASTERN  EDUCATION    145 

somewhat  in  that  "  spiritual  inheritance  "  said  by  edu- 
cationists to  be  the  rightful  possession  of  every  child 
born  into  the  world. 


The  Armenian  Schools 

When  I  went  to  Syria,  I  took  with  me  all  of  my 
books.  Among  them  was  an  encyclopedia.  The  Turk- 
ish censor  looked  over  the  first  volume  and  came  to 
the  map  of  Asia  Minor.  As  soon  as  his  eye  fell  on 
the  word  "  Armenia  "  printed  across  the  eastern  por- 
tion of  the  map  as  one  of  the  geographical  divisions, 
he  took  his  pocket-knife  and  carefully  scratched  out 
the  name,  explaining  to  me,  "  There  is  no  such  place 
as  '  Armenia.' " 

Yet  in  spite  of  this  severity,  the  Turkish  govern- 
ment has  permitted  the  Armenian  people  to  maintain 
an  educational  system.  Under  the  name  of  "  The 
Union  of  Armenian  Schools,"  a  rather  extensive  sys- 
tem has  been  maintained,  closely  connected  with,  and 
largely  supported  by  the  Gregorian  Church.  The 
schools  were  chiefly  of  primary  grade,  and  in  most 
cases  the  curriculum  was  limited.  Many  of  the 
teachers  were  poorly  prepared,  and  yet  it  was  a  school 
system  and  it  did  provide  for  instruction  in  the  ele- 
mentary subjects.  As  a  result,  it  served  to  place  the 
Armenians  on  a  much  higher  level  intellectually  than 
their  Turkish  neighbors.  There  were  also  a  number 
of  high  schools,  modeled  after  the  French  pattern, 
which  gave  a  fair  education  in  the  liberal  arts.  But 


146  THE  NEAR  EAST 

there  was  a  constant  struggle  against  lack  of  funds 
and  interference  on  the  part  of  the  government. 

The  Greek  Schools 

According  to  statistics  presented  by  the  Greek  Pa- 
triarch in  Constantinople,  there  were  in  Asia  Minor 
before  the  war  1,464  schools  for  Greek  boys  and  366 
schools  for  girls.  In  these  schools  there  was  an  at- 
tendance of  185,000  pupils.  Like  the  Armenians,  the 
Greeks  support  their  own  school  system  by  self-taxa- 
tion, but  they  have  suffered  less  opposition  from  the 
government.  Religion  and  racial  nationality  are  very 
closely  associated  among  them,  and  their  educational 
system,  in  which  they  have  imitated  the  schools  of 
Greece,  ministers  directly  to  this.  They  have  met 
very  well  the  needs  of  the  Greek  communities 
and  have  maintained  some  high  schools  of  good 
standard. 

These  two  systems,  the  Armenian  and  the  Greek, 
are  the  outstanding  examples  of  native  school  systems 
and  are  deserving  of  particular  credit  for  having  been 
maintained  under  constant  difficulties. 

The  Turkish  Educational  System 

Taking  the  Turkish  people  as  a  whole  throughout 
these  lands,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  not  more  than  twenty 
in  every  hundred  are  able  to  read  and  write,  and  that 
would  include  all  who  can  perhaps  recognize  only  a 


WESTERN  INFLUENCE  ON  EASTERN  EDUCATION    147 

few  words  and  form  a  few  letters.  Simple  as  the 
schools  are,  connected  with  every  mosque  and  church 
as  they  may  be,  still  not  over  twenty  per  cent  of  the 
children  ever  come  within  reach  of  these  crude  ad- 
vantages. Among  certain  groups  of  the  populations 
not  over  ten  per  cent  can  read  and  write. 

There  is  no  compulsory  school  law,  and  the  limited 
resources  of  the  people  tend  to  force  the  children  into 
training  for  a  trade  as  soon  as  they  can  begin  to  use 
a  tool.  This  course  produces  skilful  hand-workers,  but 
mental  dwarfs.  Besides,  to  have  people  educated  has 
not  been  in  the  interests  of  an  absolute  and  tyrannical 
government  in  state  and  in  church. 

"According  to  official  statistics  in  1911,  the  Gov- 
ernment reported  36,230  schools  and  1,331,000  stu- 
dents. This  seems,  from  other  accounts,  to  be  much 
overestimated. 

;<  There  is  no  well-developed  national  education  in 
the  Ottoman  Empire,  owing  to  the  fact  that  large  por- 
tions of  the  population  belong  to  subject  and  non- 
Moslem  races  and  the  schools  provided  by  the  Gov- 
ernment, while  open  to  all,  are  Mohammedan  and, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  are  not  patronized  by  the  Chris- 
tians. 

"  The  Turkish  educational  system  is  good  in  plan, 
but  poor  in  practice."  1 

Across  the  street  from  our  home  there  was  estab- 
lished, during  the  war,  one  of  the  new  government 
schools.  It  occupied  the  second  floor  of  a  dwelling 

1  Samuel  T.   Button  in  Reconstruction  in  Turkey. 


148  THE  NEAR  EAST 

house  and  consisted  of  perhaps  fifty  boys  up  to  the  age 
of  twelve.  The  schoolmaster  in  charge  was  of  middle 
age  and  seemed  reasonably  well  qualified  for  his  work. 
The  military  idea  was,  of  course,  dominating  all  gov- 
ernment enterprises  at  the  time.  The  boys  had  their 
regular  marching  movements  every  morning,  and  they 
were  taught  the  military  salute  and  the  proper  cheers 
for  the  flag.  Much  time  was  spent  in  learning  national 
songs.  The  native  language  of  every  one  of  these  boys 
was  Arabic,  yet  all  of  the  military  drill,  the  teaching  of 
patriotic  songs,  and  a  good  deal  of  the  school  work 
was  conducted  in  Turkish.  It  was  a  part  of  the  gov- 
ernment policy  to  insist  upon  the  use  of  the  Turkish 
language  throughout  the  Empire  even  among  groups 
to  whom  it  was  a  strange  tongue. 

The  curriculum  in  this  school  was  ambitious.  Be- 
sides the  study  of  Turkish,  there  were  classes  in  arith- 
metic, geography,  history,  science,  religion,  and  other 
studies. 

The  system  of  which  it  was  a  part  was  excellently 
planned.  Based  on  an  old  law  of  fifty  years  ago  and 
remodeled  just  before  the  war,  it  provided  for  pri- 
mary, secondary,  and  high  schools,  with  university 
courses  in  law,  medicine,  theology,  and  so  forth.  It 
was  not  with  the  plan  of  the  system  that  trouble  lay, 
but  in  its  execution. 

And  that  is  where  every  Turkish  government  has 
failed.  They  can  make  a  brave  showing  on  paper  and 
in  reports,  but  not  in  practise. 

Yet   the   Turkish   educational   system   made   phe- 


WESTERN  INFLUENCE  ON  EASTERN  EDUCATION    149 

nomenal  progress  in  the  twenty  years  preceding  the 
war.  One  of  its  outstanding  features  was  its  provision 
for  the  education  of  girls.  When  missionaries  first 
went  to  Turkey,  the  common  belief  was  that  it  was 
impossible  for  a  girl  to  learn  to  read,  that  she  was 
created  with  a  mind  incapable  of  school  instruction. 
For  the  government,  therefore,  to  recognize  officially 
and  to  plan  regularly  for  the  instruction  of  girls  was  a 
most  significant  act. 

What  might  have  been  worked  out  in  this  educa- 
tional system  had  not  the  war  intervened  is  problemati- 
cal. There  were  some  hopeful  signs,  but  judging  from 
the  historic  Turkish  administrative  inefficiency,  the 
outlook  was  not  overpromising. 

Schools  in  Persia 

In  a  previous  chapter  we  have  noted  that  a  few 
years  ago  there  was  a  great  revival  of  national  life  and 
desire  for  progress  in  Persia,  manifested  in  a  com- 
plete turnover  of  the  government,  the  establishment  of 
a  parliament,  and  the  entire  reorganization  of  the  fi- 
nancial system.  Through  foreign  political  jealousies 
the  reforms  failed  to  carry,  however. 

In  like  manner  there  was  an  awakening  to  the  needs 
of  educational  reform.  Popular  demands  were  made 
that  the  native  schools  should  enrich  their  curriculums. 
-The  people  were  no  longer  satisfied  with  the  methods 
of  the  mosques  and  the  meager  and  medieval  training 
given  there.  There  was  a  realization  that  unless  their 


150  THE  NEAR  EAST 

young  people  were  educated  according  to  the  best  of 
Western  methods,  there  was  no  possibility  of  Persia 
ever  coming  again  into  the  front  rank  of  enlightened 
nations. 

As  a  result,  a  beginning  was  made  by  an  attempt  to 
introduce  into  the  Moslem  schools  the  study  of 
science,  geography,  and  other  up-to-date  subjects. 
This  soon  caused  a  decided  reaction,  however.  The 
ecclesiastics  protested  so  vigorously  that  the  new 
studies  were  banished. 

But  the  people  of  Persia  were  not  to  be  so  easily 
discouraged;  if  they  could  not  have  in  their  own 
schools  that  which  they  knew  they  needed,  they  were 
resolved  to  obtain  it  elsewhere.  Then  began  a  great 
movement  toward  the  mission  schools.  It  was  discov- 
ered that  right  in  their  midst  had  been  developed  a 
system  giving  exactly  what  was  needed,  and  that  it 
was  superintended  and  guided  by  Americans  whom 
they  could  trust.  The  demand  on  the  mission  schools 
and  colleges  in  Persia'  became  greater  than  could  be 
met.  Everywhere  the  missionaries  were  faced  with 
the  immediate  need  of  expansion  to  meet  this  opportun- 
ity for  which  they  had  been  building  for  seventy-five 
years.  But  as  must  be  written  across  every  descrip- 
tion of  conditions  in  the  Near  East,  "  Then  came  the 
war."  i 

This  opportunity  in  Persia,  however,  is  not  closed, 
it  is  only  postponed  for  a  very  brief  time.  The  Ameri- 
can schools  will  soon  take  up  their  regular  work  with 
renewed  fervor  and  with  tremendously  increased  de- 


WESTERN  INFLUENCE  ON  EASTERN  EDUCATION    151 

mands  laid  upon  them.  Persia  is  awake.  She  must 
have  education.  The  Persian  people  are  of  our  own 
race.  Persia  holds  in  her  hand  the  future  of  great 
neighboring  territories,  of  Turkistan,  Baluchistan,  and 
Afghanistan.  Already  a  railway  has  been  pushed 
from  India  to  the  eastern  Persian  frontier.  It  will 
not  be  long  before  this  is  connected  up  with  railways 
building  to  Baghdad.  The  American  Christian  hospi- 
tal and  the  American  Christian  school,  if  pushed  to- 
day, may  win  Persia  for  the  Kingdom  of  Christ. 

Egyptian  Schools 

One  of  the  first  things  British  influence  accom- 
plished in  Egypt  was  a  complete  reorganization  of  the 
educational  system.  This  system  has  been  greatly 
criticized,  and  it  is  not  perfect,  but  considering  the 
distance  it  has  advanced  since  its  establishment,  it 
can  be  looked  upon  with  a  great  deal  of  satisfaction. 
In  every  town  of  any  size  there  is  a  government  school 
under  the  direct  supervision  of  the  department  of 
education.  These  are  public  schools  for  both  boys 
and  girls,  well  housed  in  modern  buildings,  with  up- 
to-date  apparatus,  and  teachers  fairly  trained.  This 
gives  to  Egypt  by  far  the  best  school  advantages  of  any 
land  in  the  Near  East.  The  system  begins  with  kinder- 
garten and  primary  and  culminates  in  professional 
schools  of  medicine,  agriculture,  and  law. 

Necessarily  a  government  system  cannot  give  re- 
ligious instruction,  and  so  there  is  developing  a  type 


152  THE  NEAR  EAST 

of  general  education  without  the  attendant  steadying 
power  of  wisely  directed  religious  teaching.  But  the 
government  of  Egypt  places  no  obstacles  in  the  way  of 
religious  teaching  on  the  part  of  others.  So,  running 
parallel  with  these  government  schools,  are  the  mission 
schools  both  British  and  American,  with  their  complete 
systems  from  primary  to  college. 

The  Americans,  under  the  direction  of  the  United 
Presbyterian  Board,  have  established  a  splendid  line 
of  schools  along  the  Nile.  Their  college  for  men  in 
Upper  Egypt  at  Assiut  is,  like  the  well-known  col- 
leges of  Turkey,  a  power  in  the  life  of  all  Upper 
Egypt.  There  is  the  college  for  women  in  Cairo,  in 
buildings  suited  to  the  place  it  occupies  in  the  educa- 
tional life  of  the  capital  city  where  it  touches  the  high- 
est circles  of  life  among  the  women  of  Cairo  and 
Egypt. 

And  now,  as  the  war  clouds  clear,  there  is  being 
founded  the  American  University  of  Cairo.  This  is 
the  answer  of  the  United  Presbyterians  to  the  enlarged 
opportunity  in  Egypt,  and  it  indicates  their  determina- 
tion to  leave  nothing  undone  to  meet  the  demands  of 
the  new  day  there. 

The  valley  of  the  Nile  is  a  storehouse  of  wealth 
untold.  But  wealth  without  godliness  has  ever  been 
the  ruin  of  this  marvelous  country.  These  schools  and 
colleges  and  this  Christian  university  of  Cairo  are  a 
determined  attempt  to  throw  into  Egypt  the  regenerat- 
ing forces  of  Christian  character  in  such  strength  that 
Egypt  shall  this  time  be  saved. 


WESTERN  INFLUENCE  ON  EASTERN  EDUCATION    153 

French  Schools 

French  being  the  recognized  language  of  diplomacy 
and  commerce,  schools  teaching  that  language  have 
found  ready  acceptance  in  the  Near  East. 

There  are  a  number  of  good  French  secular  schools, 
maintained  by  a  French  Society  that  seek  to  promote 
the  use  of  the  French  language  and  ideals,  but  which 
have  no  religious  connection  and  do  not  permit  any 
religious  instruction. 

There  are  the  schools  maintained  by  various  re- 
ligious orders.  The  Freres,  for  example,  have  an  ex- 
tensive system  of  good  schools  especially  in  Egypt  and 
Syria.  Their  language  of  instruction  is  French,  but 
they  give  good  courses  in  the  local  languages  and  are 
usually  efficient  in  mathematics  and  sciences. 

The  Jesuits,  driven  out  of  France,  have  found 
refuge  either  in  the  colonies  or  in  foreign  lands  where 
French  political  influence  predominates.  They  are 
well  established  in  Syria  where  their  University  of  St. 
Joseph  in  Beirut  is  an  efficient  institution.  Their 
teaching  of  the  French  language  is  superb,  and  their 
schools  of  medicine  and  pharmacy,  being  affiliated  with 
schools  in  France,  maintain  a  high  standard.  They 
have  also  a  fine  school  in  Archeology  for  the  study  of 
the  excellent  materials  found  in  the  Levant. 

Before  the  war  the  French  Catholic  work  main- 
tained more  than  500  schools  with  over  50,000  pupils. 
There  were  schools  for  both  boys  and  girls,  and  the 
system,  extending  from  lowest  primary  to  university, 


154  THE  NEAR  EAST 

was  to  be  found  well  established  in  all  parts  of  the 
Near  East.  Unfortunately,  however,  this  French  mis- 
sion work  was  usually  used  for  political  propaganda  on 
behalf  of  French  interests. 


Before  the  war  there  were  a  number  of  German  mis- 
sion schools  in  various  parts  of  the  East,  especially  in 
Turkey.  After  the  war  began  and  other  European 
schools  were  forced  to  close,  German  schools  in- 
creased with  great  rapidity.  They  placed  special  em- 
phasis on  language  study  and  the  study  of  mathematics 
and  exact  sciences.  Schools  were  opened  for  both 
boys  and  girls.  While  before  the  war  these  German 
schools  were  chiefly  connected  with  religious  institu- 
tions in  Germany,  both  Catholic  and  Protestant,  dur- 
ing the  war  new  schools  were  undoubtedly  under  gov- 
ernment patronage  and  support,  and  the  schoolmasters 
were  of  German  government  appointment,  often  being 
German  officers  who  had  been  incapacitated  by  mili- 
tary service. 

A  few  schools  were  also  maintained  by  religious  so- 
cieties of  Russia,  Denmark,  and  Italy. 

Mission  Schools 

Missionary  experience  has  demonstrated  that  next 
to  medical  practice,  schools  are  the  most  effective 
means  of  gaining  a  hearing  in  the  lands  of  the  Near 


WESTERN  INFLUENCE  ON  EASTERN  EDUCATION    155 

East.  Superstition  and  fanaticism  are  the  children  of 
ignorance,  hence  the  proper  schooling  of  the  young  is 
the  surest  means  of  overcoming  these  twin  evils.  The 
establishment  of  elementary  schools,  therefore,  be- 
came of  first  importance. 

Except  in  certain  details  of  racial  custom,  Mrs. 
Shedd's  description  of  a  Persian  mission  school  is 
typical  of  those  in  the  Near  East. 

"  Until  the  opening  of  our  mission  school,  there  was 
nothing  for  Mohamedan  girls  in  Urumia  that  could  be 
called  a  school.  The  poorer  girls  were  uninstructed ; 
the  girls  of  wealthy  families  were  taught  Persian  in 
their  homes  by  a  mullah,  but  little  else. 

"  For  twenty  years  Miss  VanDuzee  had  struggled 
to  keep  her  little  sewing  class  together,  cheerfully 
ready  to  begin  again  after  each  attempt  to  break  it  up. 
At  last  it  grew  in  numbers  and  regularity  to  such  a 
degree  that  it  was  attached  to  our  school  for  Chris- 
tian girls. 

"  On  clear  mornings  almost  as  soon  as  the  sun  had 
tipped  the  opposite  mountains  and  flooded  the  plain 
with  light,  the  girls  were  on  their  way  to  the  school 
of  the  Khannums  (foreign  ladies).  Watches  are  very 
desirable  as  gifts  for  the  wedding  dowery,  but  why 
trouble  with  timepieces  when  you  have  an  unerring 
time-keeper  in  the  sky,  which  measures  out  morning, 
noon,  and  night  and  the  hours  before  and  after. 
Minutes  do  not  count. 

"  Slowly  they  file  into  the  room  enveloped  in 
brightly  colored  or  black,  all-enveloping  chundras. 


156  THE  NEAR  EAST 

Gracefully  they  slip  off  their  low  shoes  at  the  door  and 
seat  themselves  in  rows  on  the  carpeted  floor.  Hymns 
are  sung  with  the  help  of  a  baby  organ,  a  Bible  story 
is  told,  a  short  prayer,  and  they  separate  to  the  various 
classrooms. 

"  Some  of  the  chundras  are  discarded,  for  now,  in- 
stead of  the  long  trousers  and  short  full  ballet  skirts, 
many  of  the  girls  wear  dresses  made  by  their  own 
hands  in  school.  The  larger  girls  retain  their  chun- 
dras, for  their  faces  must  not  be  seen  by  any  male 
creature. 

"  Two  thirds  of  the  school  go  to  the  primary  room, 
and  the  girls  seat  themselves  on  the  floor  with  their 
little  bundle  of  books  before  them.  According  to 
grades  they  are  instructed  in  reading,  number  work, 
writing,  sewing,  singing,  and  calisthenics  with  games 
out  of  doors.  Here  for  the  first  time  they  learn  the 
joy  of  free  play.  In  the  primary  grades  they  are  in- 
structed in  Turkish,  the  vernacular  of  northern 
Persia. 

"  The  older  girls  are  seated  at  desks,  and  in  addition 
to  these  lessons  are  taught  Persian,  English,  grammar, 
and  elementary  geography.  Their  teacher  in  Persian 
is  a  white-turbaned  mullah  of  age  and  dignity  and  suf- 
ficiently devoid  of  masculine  charm  to  make  a  safe  in- 
structor for  Moslem  girls,  with  a  chaperone.  He  be- 
lieves that  Atlas  carried  the  world  on  his  shoulders  and 
is  shocked  at  the  unorthodox  but  simple  scientific  ex- 
planation of  the  earth's  movements  and  atmospheric 
changes.  He  is  not  much  of  a  teacher  according  to  our 


WESTERN  INFLUENCE  ON  EASTERN  EDUCATION    157 

estimate,  and  when  the  girls  get  too  gay,  wildly  calls 
for  the  chaperone  to  help. 

"  All  other  native  teachers  are  Assyrian  Christians, 
graduates  of  Fiske  Seminary. 

"  The  most  valuable  and  interesting  development 
is  the  moral  and  spiritual  growth  which  is  marked  both 
in  individuals  and  in  the  school  as  a  whole." 

British  Schools 

Of  course  the  whole  government  educational  system 
of  Egypt  was  of  British  origin  and  control.  But  aside 
from  this  an  important  part  of  the  work  which  various 
missionary  societies  of  Great  Britain  had  established 
extensively  through  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Palestine,  was 
in  the  schools. 

They  confined  their  work  largely  to  elementary  and 
secondary  grades,  cooperating  with  the  American  mis- 
sions in  the  college  work.  They  also  conducted  nor- 
mal and  industrial  schools.  The  work  in  all  their 
schools  was  of  a  high  grade,  and  special  emphasis  was 
placed  on  securing  results  in  character  building.  Hon- 
esty and  integrity  have  ever  been  the  watchwords  of 
British  character,  and  their  schools  have  been  success- 
ful in  imparting  these  elements  to  their  pupils. 

American  Schools 

There  was  a  group  of  five  persons  around  the  lunch 
table  in  the  old  Massasoit  Hotel  of  Springfield,  Mass., 
in  October,  1862.  The  group  consisted  of  a  distin- 


158  THE  NEAR  EAST 

guished  New  York  City  merchant,  his  son  and  wife, 
and  a  missionary  and  his  wife  from  Syria.  It  was 
after  a  session  of  the  American  Board  of  Foreign  Mis- 
sions where  the  missionary  had  made  a  plea  for  in- 
creased forces  in  the  Syria  field.  He  had  just  re- 
turned to  America  after  witnessing  one  of  the  periodic 
massacres  in  Turkey  where  he  had  been  signally  suc- 
cessful in  distributing  relief  by  employing  the  people  in 
road  construction  and  other  useful  public  works.  At 
the  lunch  table  he  had  set  forth  with  simple  earnest- 
ness and  eloquence  the  opportunities  for  higher  edu- 
cational work  in  the  Near  East,  pointing  out  the 
awakened  interest  in  Syria  and  Egypt,  the  strategic 
location  for  reaching  the  Arabic-speaking  world,  and 
the  call  for  an  American  collegiate  institution.  His 
presentation  was  so  convincing  that  the  merchant 
turned  to  his  son  with  the  exclamation,  "  Stuart,  this 
seems  promising,  we  must  look  into  it."  From  that 
remark  has  grown  a  life-long  family  interest  and  sup- 
port, and  the  equipment  and  work  of  the  Syrian  Prot- 
estant College  of  Beirut,  Syria. 

During  a  half  century  this  missionary  college  has 
expanded  into  a  university  of  a  thousand  students 
granting  degrees  in  Arts,  Commerce,  Pharmacy,  Den- 
tistry, and  Medicine.  Its  students  represent  a  dozen 
different  nationalities,  and  its  graduates  hold  influen- 
tial positions  throughout  the  Sudan,  Egypt,  Palestine, 
and  Syria.  Among  the  number  are  found  teachers, 
preachers,  doctors,  lawyers,  journalists,  merchants, 
statesmen. 


•5  S  rt 


WESTERN  INFLUENCE  ON  EASTERN  EDUCATION    159 

The  same  act  of  legislature  of  New  York  State  that 
granted  incorporation  to  the  college  for  Syria  in  1864 
granted  the  same  for  Robert  College  in  Constanti- 
nople.1 For  many  years  the  same  president  presided 
over  both  boards  of  trustees.  Dr.  Daniel  Bliss,  presi- 
dent of  the  Syrian  Protestant  College,  and  Dr.  George 
Washburn,  president  of  Robert  College,  were  room- 
mates at  Amherst  College.  What  the  latter  college 
has  done  for  the  young  men  of  Bulgaria  and  Asia 
Minor,  the  former  has  done  for  the  young  men  of  the 
Arabic-speaking  countries.  Both  institutions  are  chil- 
dren of  the  American  Board  of  Foreign  Missions 
though  now  independently  incorporated  and  endowed. 

A  similar  institution  for  the  higher  education  of 
women,  a  direct  outgrowth  of  the  missions  of  the 
American  Board,  is  the  Constantinople  College  for 
Women.  It  occupies  a  commanding  site  on  the  Bos- 
phorus  and  is  finely  equipped  for  its  work.  Its  in- 
fluence has  been  most  remarkable,  and  the  young 
women  who  have  attended  its  classes  have  come  from 
every  class,  race,  and  religion  of  the  great  city  of 
Constantinople  and  adjacent  lands.  It  has  had  a  great 
share  in  bringing  about  the  awakening  desire  for 
education  on  the  part  of  Turkish  women  and  has  dem- 
onstrated beyond  a  doubt  the  capabilities  and  capacities 
of  the  women  of  the  Levant  for  the  best  that  education 
can  give. 

But  these  three  colleges,  while  typical,  do  not  stand 
alone  as  representative  of  America's  gift  to  the  higher 

1  Fifty  Years  in  Constantinople,  page  24. 


160  THE  NEAR  EAST 

education  of  the  East.  From  Assiut  to  Teheran  is  a 
circle  of  institutions,  some  perhaps  not  so  well  known 
as  those  already  mentioned,  but  all  centers  of  light, 
influence,  and  power  for  the  districts  in  which  they  are 
placed.  Of  the  well-known  American  Christian  col- 
leges in  Armenia  and  Turkey  there  are  Euphrates  Col- 
lege at  Harpoot,  Anatolia  College  at  Marsovan,  Cen- 
tral Turkey  College  at  Aintab,  St.  Paul's  College  at 
Tarsus,  Central  Turkey  Girls'  College  at  Marash,  In- 
ternational College  at  Smyrna  and  Teachers  College 
at  Sivas.  Every  year  hundreds  of  students  have  been 
in  attendance  at  these  colleges  and  have  been  going 
back  to  their  communities  as  life  centers  for  awaken- 
ing thought. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  in  passing  that,  in  October, 
1919,  Anatolia  College  resumed  work  which  was  en- 
tirely suspended  in  May,  1916.  A  large  part  of  the 
main  building  is  wrecked  beyond  repair  but  there  are 
one  hundred  and  fifty  boys  on  the  ground  all  eager  to 
begin  work. 

A  Complete  System 

In  founding  colleges  the  missionaries  did  not,  how- 
ever, begin  at  the  top  of  the  educational  ladder  and 
work  down.  The  colleges  were  rather  the  outgrowth 
of  the  widespread  system  of  lower  grade  schools  or- 
ganized throughout  these  Eastern  lands.  It  is  a  school 
system  that  has  its  roots  in  the  village  primary  school 
and  its  trunk  and  branches  in  the  intermediate  and 
high  schools. 


WESTERN  INFLUENCE  ON  EASTERN  EDUCATION    161 

"  Since  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
American  missionaries  have  been  planting  schools  all 
over  the  Near  East  and  to-day  they  are  a  great  power  in 
the  land.  No  foreign  nation  can  claim  so  disinterested 
an  attitude  towards  the  people,  Moslem  and  Christian 
alike,  as  can  America.  Her  purpose  in  education  has 
been  entirely  humanitarian  and  is  entirely  free  from 
any  political  or  commercial  bias.  .  .  .  This  has  been 
recognized  by  the  Government  as  well  as  by  the 
people  and  the  Americans  have  in  consequence  en- 
joyed universal  respect  and  esteem.  They  have  been 
able  to  include  in  their  schools  representatives  of  all 
the  various  nationalities  found  in  the  Ottoman 
Empire.  .  .  . 

"  The  equipment  of  these  mission  schools  is  varied, 
but  on  the  whole,  very  good  indeed.  Professors,  in- 
structors, and  doctors  connected  with  them  are  the 
representatives  of  the  best  universities  in  this  country. 
The  standard  of  scholarship  is  good  and  the  curricula 
are  based  upon  American  ideas,  but  cleverly  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  the  country.  .  .  . 

"  Almost  as  much  thought  has  been  given  by  Ameri- 
cans to  the  education  of  girls  and  women  in  Turkey 
as  to  men  and  boys.  A  great  many  mission  schools 
are  educating  girls  on  an  equality  with  their 
brothers."  x 

1  Reconstruction  in  Turkey,  pages  41,  42,  43. 


162  THE  NEAR  EAST 

What  American  Schools  are  Producing 

A  short  time  before  the  war  I  was  in  Cairo  and 
visited,  in  the  middle  of  the  afternoon,  the  printing 
office  of  one  of  the  great  city  dailies.  It  was  inter- 
esting to  see  the  news  from  European  agencies,  flashed 
from  all  over  the  world,  being  set  up  in  the  curious 
Arabic  characters.  Then,  as  the  time  for  the  last  edi- 
tion closed,  to  see  the  molten  lead  poured  into  the 
electrotype  mold,  the  turn  of  a  switch  that  set  the 
presses  in  motion,  and  a  few  minutes  later  to  hear 
automobiles  scurrying  away  to  the  confines  of  the  city 
and  to  the  railway  stations  with  this  daily  journal, 
just  as  in  London  or  New  York.  It  was  the  magic  of 
the  West  under  Oriental  manipulation;  and  all  ef- 
ficiently accomplished. 

Then  I  thought  of  the  two  men  at  the  head  of  that 
publishing  house.  I  thought  of  them  as  recognized 
through  all  that  Eastern  world  as  authorities  in  liter- 
ature and  science  and  administration.  I  thought  of 
them  as  men  whose  opinions  and  influence  reached 
from  Cairo  to  Khartum,  and  to  London  as  well,  on 
all  questions  concerning  the  progress  of  the  land  of 
the  Nile.  I  thought  of  them  also  as  boys  in  a  little  vil- 
lage on  the  lower  slopes  of  Mount  Hermon  in  Syria, 
beginning  their  education,  primer  and  Bible  in  hand, 
in  an  obscure  mission  school,  later  as  students  and 
teachers  in  the  American  college,  and  now  most  dis- 
tinguished alumni. 

And  such  is  the  tale  of  many  a  one  who  has  re- 


WESTERN  INFLUENCE  ON  EASTERN  EDUCATION    163 

ceived  his  earliest  training  in  a  little  village  school, 
has  there  had  awakened  his  thirst  for  education,  and 
found  the  possibility  of  satisfying  it  in  the  complete 
system  from  primary  to  university. 

One  day  there  appeared  at  Beirut  a  Moslem  Tartar 
from  near  the  Ural  Mountains.  He  had  been  on  a 
pilgrimage  to  Mecca  and  returning  had  entered  the 
great  University  of  Cairo,  El-Azhar.  He  was  plan- 
ning to  be  a  teacher  in  the  Tartar  Moslem  school,  and 
this  university  was  the  natural  place  to  seek  training. 
But  the  teaching  did  not  satisfy  his  intellectual  long- 
ing. He  heard  of  the  American  college  in  Beirut  and 
resolved  to  go  there  and  try  it.  Though  placed  in  the 
lowest  class  of  the  Preparatory, — and  he  was  well 
along  in  years, — he  struggled  on  until  the  degree  of 
B.A.  was  fully  earned  in  the  Normal  Training  course. 
"  I  have  remained  here,"  he  said,  "  because  I  like  your 
method."  His  last  address  was,  "  Troitsk,  Russia, 
Principal  of  Tartar  High  School."  He  was  translat- 
ing the  college  text-books  into  Tartar  and  had  in- 
fluenced a  score  of  other  young  men  to  enter  the 
college. 

And  then  came  the  war. 

Educational  Problems 

In  1914  the  Turkish  Empire  proclaimed  a  new  edu- 
cational law.  One  of  the  provisions  of  this  law  made 
it  illegal  to  require  attendance  at  religious  exercises  or 
instruction  on  the  part  of  any  student  differing  in 


164  THE  NEAR  EAST 

religious  faith  from  that  of  the  school  or  college. 
Now  it  has  been  the  universal  practice  in  mission 
schools  to  require  this  religious  instruction.  The  Bible 
has  been  a  text-book  throughout  the  course,  and  chapel 
services  have  been  held  daily.  This  was  done  in  the 
belief  that  education  was  not  complete  and  was  wholly 
unsafe  without  religious  education.  The  whole  mind 
must  be  trained.  As  Christian  institutions,  the  only 
training  possible  was  Christian  training,  not  in  a  nar- 
row proselyting  sense,  nor  in  a  medieval  catechising 
and  memorizing  method,  but  on  broad,  reasonable  lines 
giving  the  best  in  a  free,  open  way,  with  the  spirit  of 
inquiry  always  present.  The  American  missionary 
colleges  have  always  stood  for  the  open  mind  on  all 
questions  whether  of  science  or  history  or  religion. 
The  laboratory,  the  library,  and  the  classroom  have  in- 
vited free  and  thorough  investigation. 

The  Christian  faith  has  never  feared  the  interroga- 
tion point. 

While  Turkish  law  may  have  passed  away,  it  has 
nevertheless  left  this  problem  before  our  mission  insti- 
tutions as  to  the  best  means  of  bringing  religious  train- 
ing to  the  minds  of  the  students  entrusted  to  their  care. 
There  is  a  rapidly  increasing  percentage  of  Moham- 
medan students.  The  question  is  still  being  studied 
during  these  days  of  readjustment,  as  to  what  is  the 
most  effective  method. 

Another  problem  is  that  of  relationship  to  govern- 
ment systems.  The  Near  East  has,  on  the  whole,  al- 
lowed a  great  deal  of  freedom  to  foreign  institutions. 


WESTERN  INFLUENCE  ON  EASTERN  EDUCATION    165 

As  long  as  they  went  quietly  about  their  business  the 
central  governments  concerned  themselves  but  little 
with  the  working  methods.  Undoubtedly  the  war  will 
bring  a  tightening  up  of  all  administrative  machinery. 
There  have  been  no  public  school  systems  worthy  the 
name  except  in  Egypt,  but  now  every  government  is 
bound  to  establish  one,  and  along  modern  lines.  How 
can  the  missionary  system  be  related  to  these  systems 
in  such  a  way  as  to  preserve  its  own  life  and  methods 
and  at  the  same  time  so  influence  the  public  systems  as 
to  assure  in  them  those  elements  of  character  building 
without  which  education  is  vain? 

Then  there  is  the  problem  of  vocational  schools. 
The  new  day  offers  special  opportunity  for  the  train- 
ing of  boys  and  girls  for  agriculture,  domestic  science, 
arts  and  crafts,  pedagogy,  nursing,  together  with  the 
more  specialized  branches  of  higher  training  in  engi- 
neering, mining,  medicine,  and  law.  Is  it  within  the 
province  of  missionary  educational  work  to  undertake 
these  special  branches?  It  is  education  coupled  with 
the  daily  life,  it  is  a  wide  open  door  just  now.  To- 
morrow the  door  may  be  closed.  Shall  the  missionary 
enter  ? 

And  lastly  there  is  the  problem  of  money  and  men. 
Before  the  war  the  teacher  of  a  village  school  who 
received  six  to  fifteen  dollars  a  month  was  well  paid. 
That  day  will  never  return.  At  once,  then,  the  mis- 
sion schools  must  face  a  large  increase  of  expense  in 
salaries,  not  in  the  villages  alone  but  more  especially  in 
the  higher  schools  and  colleges.  If,  too,  these  new 


166  THE  NEAR  EAST 

opportunities  are  to  be  met,  it  means  without  delay 
larger  and  better  equipment  in  buildings,  apparatus, 
and  teaching  force.  The  problem  of  money  demands 
immediate  solution  for  the  new  day. 

But  the  work  requires  men  and  women  and  requires 
them  now.  These  must  be  not  only  the  native  teacher 
of  the  country.  Think  of  what  the  United  States 
Government  did  for  the  school  system  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  in  sending  over  hundreds  of  trained 
American  men  and  women,  of  the  results  accomplished 
in  a  brief  space  of  time  by  this  concentrated  effort  at 
the  psychological  moment. 

These  are  the  days  for  concentrated  drives.  The 
moment  has  now  arrived  throughout  the  lands  of  the 
Near  East.  All  the  provinces  of  the  former  Turkish 
Empire  and  Persia  are  about  to  undergo  a  complete 
reconstruction. 

The  school  staffs  have  been  depleted  during  the  war 
and  instead  of  beginning  the  new  era  with  increased 
forces  it  is  necessary  to  start  under  a  handicap. 
Where,  in  all  the  world,  can  a  few  years  or  a  whole 
life  be  invested  that  will  bring  larger  returns  than  in 
the  education  of  these  people  of  Bible  lands?  And 
the  need  is  now. 

American  missionary  educationists  stand  at  the 
head  of  all  trusted  advisers  for  the  people  of  Nearer 
Asia.  It  is  the  psychological  time  for  writing  into  the 
new  life  the  essentials  of  Christian  character  through 
education.  "  In  a  word,  Christian  education  alone  can 
give  the  leadership  that  will  recreate  Nearer  Asia. 


WESTERN  INFLUENCE  ON  EASTERN  EDUCATION    167 

And  the  facts  of  the  Near  East  prove  that  such  leader- 
ship can  be  so  developed."  1 

When  Prince  Feisal,  son  of  the  King  of  the  Hedjaz, 
was  asked  about  the  influence  of  the  Syrian  Protestant 
College  upon  his  countrymen,  he  replied :  "  Dr.  Daniel 
Bliss,  the  founder  of  the  college,  was  the  grandfather 
of  Syria;  and  his  son,  Howard  Bliss,  the  present  presi- 
dent, is  the  father  of  Syria.  Without  the  education 
that  this  college  has  given,  the  struggle  for  freedom 
would  never  have  been  won.  The  Arabs  owe  every- 
thing to  these  men."  2 

Why  is  it  that  with  one  accord  these  people  turn  to 
America  as  the  mandatory  which  they  all  desire  to  aid 
them  in  their  reorganization?  They  answer,  "Be- 
cause we  know  of  the  spirit  of  America  through  the 
schools  and  colleges  they  have  given  us,  not  for  politi- 
cal propaganda,  but  simply  in  a  spirit  of  helpfulness." 

1  The  Riddle  of  Nearer  Asia,  pages  200-205. 
*  Outlook,  2  April,   1919. 


VII 
THE  WORLD'S  CROSSROADS 


CHAPTER  SEVEN 
THE  WORLD'S  CROSSROADS 

IT  is  worth  while  to  give  attention  to  the  geographi- 
cal position  which  the  former  Turkish  Empire 
occupied.  Note  the  boundaries:  Black  Sea  on  the 
north,  Persia  and  the  Persian  Gulf  on  the  east,  Egypt 
on  the  south,  with  the  Mediterranean  and  ^Egean 
seas  on  the  west.  At  the  eastern  door  lies  the  Desert 
of  Arabia,  with  its  world-old  caravan  trails.  Scarcely 
any  portion  of  the  Empire  is  more  than  two  hun- 
dred miles  from  the  seacoast;  while  the  two  great 
rivers,  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  are  navigable  for 
six  hundred  miles  from  the  sea,  crossing  that  richest 
of  agricultural  plains  and  penetrating  almost  to  the 
very  heart  of  the  Empire. 

The  city  of  Constantinople,  which  has  always  been 
recognized  as  the  strategic  place  for  a  world  capital, 
and  which  has,  perhaps,  the  most  wonderful  harbor 
of  any  city  in  the  world,  lies  within  this  Empire. 

This  is  the  bridge  between  three  great  continents: 
Asia,  the  continent  of  the  past,  Europe,  the  continent 
of  the  present,  and  Africa,  the  continent  of  the  future. 

171 


172  THE  NEAR  EAST 

All  trade  routes  between  the  East  and  the  West,  be- 
tween the  North  and  the  South,  from  one  of  these 
continents  to  the  other,  from  the  fields  where  raw 
material  is  produced  to  the  factories  and  markets  of 
the  West,  must  lie  across  or  border  upon  this  won- 
derful country.  There  are  harbors  sufficient,  and  the 
climate  is  such  that  the  whole  year  is  free  from 
devastating  storms. 

It  is  well  to  recall  also  the  history  of  the  people 
of  this  land  in  relation  to  trade.  It  was  the  Phoeni- 
cians from  Tyre  and  Sidon  who  sent  their  fleets  of 
merchant  ships  to  all  the  known  world.  It  was  from 
the  shores  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  adjacent  islands 
that  the  Greeks  sailed  forth,  carrying  their  trade  and 
commerce  to  every  port.  And  the  Argonauts,  in 
their  search  for  the  Golden  Fleece,  visited  the  northern 
coast  of  this  land. 

But  it  is  not  only  in  ancient  history  and  mythology 
that  the  people  have  gained  a  name  for  trade.  For 
years  every  European  nation  maintained  its  repre- 
sentatives and  its  warehouses  in  the  city  of  Aleppo 
that  they  might  benefit  from  the  trade  with  the  East 
which  centered  in  that  city.  In  our  modern  days 
the  Armenians,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Syrians,  finding 
no  adequate  opportunity  for  trade  at  home,  have  gone 
to  every  country  in  the  world,  and  wherever  they  have 
settled,  they  have  been  successful  merchants. 

Now  let  their  own  country  once  be  opened  by  the 
construction  of  proper  highways,  railways,  and  har- 
bors, let  the  products  of  the  soil  be  brought  forth 


THE  WORLD'S  CROSSROADS  173 

in  their  possible  abundance,  let  the  riches  of  the  mines 
be  loosed  and  these  people  will  find  at  home  a  field 
for  their  endeavors  and  their  abilities  which  they 
will  not  be  slow  to  seize  upon.  We  shall  then  see 
the  glory  of  the  ancient  merchant  princes  restored 
to  the  land  of  the  Phoenicians  and  the  Greeks. 

When  the  agricultural  possibilities  are  developed, 
the  mineral  deposits  are  properly  worked,  the  power 
of  the  rivers  is  transformed  into  electrical  energy, 
and  the  manufacturing  facilities  have  been  utilized, 
then  this  natural  resource  of  geographical  position 
will  be  appraised  at  its  full  value  in  the  list  of  the 
assets  of  the  Near  East. 

It  is  not  fancy  or  imagination,  it  is  not  excess  of 
enthusiasm  or  dreaming,  but  it  is  the  logic  of  estab- 
lished facts  that  assures  for  this  country  a  golden 
future.  Her  resources  have  been  little  measured,  and 
her  possibilities  have  been  far  from  adequately  esti- 
mated. This  country  must  no  longer  be  left  poverty- 
stricken  and  oppressed,  and  the  world  deprived  of 
all  her  potential  wealth  for  the  feeding  and  the  cloth- 
ing and  enrichment,  not  only  of  the  people  to  whom 
it  rightly  belongs,  but  to  all  the  world  who  will 
share  in  its  prosperity.1 

Religious  Pilgrims 

In  1904  the  World  Sunday  School  Convention  was 
held  in  the  city  of  Jerusalem.  A  whole  steamer  load 

1  The  Riddle  of  Nearer  Asia,  Chapter  VIII. 


174  THE  NEAR  EAST 

of  Sunday-school  officers  and  workers  from  America 
together  with  delegates  from  other  lands,  not  only 
gathered  for  convention  exercises  in  Jerusalem,  but 
also  spent  several  days  visiting  mission  schools  and 
stations  in  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Egypt.  After  the 
Edinburgh  Missionary  Conference  a  party  of  seventy 
leaders  and  delegates  from  that  memorable  gather- 
ing journeyed  to  the  Near  East  and  toured  through 
the  countries  observing  at  first  hand  peoples  and  re- 
ligious conditions  and  studying  missionary  work. 

Every  spring  Egypt,  Palestine,  Syria,  and  Con- 
stantinople are  visited  by  several  thousand  tourists 
from  Europe  and  America,  who  wish  to  see  the  sights 
of  these  ancient  lands,  and  they  come,  most  of  them, 
for  the  first  time  into  direct  contact  with  missions 
at  work.  Every  year  great  crowds  of  pilgrims  from 
all  Christian  lands  go  to  Jerusalem,  the  Jordan,  and 
Galilee.  Thousands  of  Russian  peasants,  religious 
devotees  from  central  Europe,  South  America,  Aus- 
tralia, and,  in  fact,  from  every  land  annually  make 
the  tour  of  Christian  shrines  in  the  Holy  Land. 

One  proof  of  the  thousands  among  the  Mohamme- 
dans who  make  these  pilgrimages  is  found  in  the 
number  to  whose  name  is  prefixed  "  Hajj."  There 
is  Hajj-Ali,  Hajj-Abdu,  Hajj-Ibrahim, — the  title 
having  been  earned  by  making  the  pilgrimage  to  the 
Holy  City.  For  all  orthodox  Moslems  this  means 
Mecca,  with  its  thousand  memories  of  "  the  Prophet " 
and  Moslem  history;  for  the  Shi'ahs  of  Persia  and 
beyond,  it  is  Kerbela,  only  less  sacred  than  Mecca 


By  railroads  built  and  projected,  Asia,  Europe,  and  Africa, 
the  continents  of  the  past,  the  present,  and  the  future  are 
joined  at  Aleppo,  the  world's  crossroads.  Trade  routes  from 
East  to  West,  from  North  to  South,  from  raw  material  to 
finished  product,  must  pass  through  this  wonderful  country. 
There  is  a  need  for  missionaries,  for  educators,  for  doctors, 
and  an  equally  urgent  need  for  Christian  business  men 


THE  WORLD'S  CROSSROADS  175 

itself,  out  on  the  desert  west  of  Baghdad,  where 
Hussein,  son  of  Ali,  grandson  of  Mohammed,  lies 
buried.  Two  hundred  thousand  pilgrims  visit  this 
single  shrine  every  year. 

What  is  the  significance  of  this  stream  of  tourists 
and  pilgrims  from  every  country  of  the  globe  con- 
stantly meeting  and  mingling  and  passing  over  this 
bridge  of  the  nations?  Has  it  no  strategic  signifi- 
cance for  mission  opportunity  ?  1 

An  International  World  Center 

The  influence  of  the  strategic  position  occupied  by 
these  lands  of  the  Near  East  is  no  less  great  in  the 
world  of  politics.  Ever  since  the  days  when  the 
Crusaders  of  western  Europe  turned  their  thoughts 
toward  the  Holy  City  of  the  East,  these  lands  have 
lain  at  the  crux  of  all  world  politics.  And  the  very 
geographical  position  which  they  occupy  must  per- 
force continue  them  at  the  center  of  all  international 
relationships.  Just  as  the  geographical  position  de- 
termines to  a  great  extent  commercial  prosperity,  so 
also  that  same  position  determines  political  impor- 
tance. 

It  is  eight  centuries  since  the  Turk  first  invaded 
southwestern  Asia  and  knocked  at  the  door  of  Europe, 
but  ever  since  that  time  relationships  with  the  Turk- 
ish Empire  have  largely  determined  European  state- 
craft. Egypt  is  the  gate  to  Central  Africa,  Persia 

1  The  Riddle  of  Nearer  Asia,  Prologue. 


176  THE  NEAR  EAST 

is  the  bulwark  of  southwestern  Asia,  and  Constanti- 
nople is  the  natural  avenue  of  approach  to  eastern 
Europe. 

The  Round  Table,  the  foremost  British  Quarterly 
on  politics,  in  speaking  of  this  region  and  the  possi- 
bility of  America  acting  as  mandatory,  contends  that 
"  The  key  to  the  problem  of  regenerating  Russia  lies 
not  in  Siberia,  but  in  Russia  itself.  If  once  America 
shoulders  the  task  of  creating  order  in  the  Middle 
East,  she  will  buttress  Russia  from  the  south,  for 
order,  no  less  than  anarchy,  is  infectious.  As  steward 
of  the  Near  East,  America  can  extend  to  the  blind 
giant  the  neighborly  hand  of  a  friendship  which  is 
open  to  no  suspicion." 

What  is  said  here  regarding  this  land  as  a  point 
of  influence  upon  Russia  is  equally  true  of  influence 
upon  the  Balkan  States.  It  is  also  a  point  of  vantage 
from  which  to  lead  and  develop  Central  Africa,  and 
to  guide  the  people  of  those  great  Turkestan  plains 
who  have  time  and  again  inundated  Europe  with  their 
virile  hordes  of  Asiatic  Huns. 

Wherever  commerce  and  politics  find  their  strategic 
center,  there  also  must  Christian  missions  find  theirs. 
It  was  not  by  accident  that  the  purest  conception 
of  religion  found  expression  among  these  people  of 
the  Levant,  or  that  the  Founder  of  Christianity  was 
born  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
There  have  been  no  accidents,  either  in  political  or 
religious  history  when  viewed  in  the  perspective.  And 
while  the  vital  force  of  the  Christian  Church  has  for 


THE  WORLD'S  CROSSROADS  177 

a  time  been  transferred  to  Western  lands,  certainly 
the  strategic  base  for  its  main  operations  lies  not 
in  this  Western  world,  but  on  that  bridge  which 
unites  the  three  great  continents  of  the  eastern  hemi- 
sphere.1 

More  than  a  thousand  years  ago,  so  the  story  runs, 
the  Emperor  of  Russia  set  out  to  choose  an  appro- 
priate religion  for  his  new  Empire.  His  emissaries 
visited  Rome  and  Constantinople  and  other  religious 
centers.  Impressed  with  all  they  saw,  they  recom- 
mended that  the  Church  of  Christ,  as  seen  in  the  East, 
should  be  the  model  upon  which  their  national  re- 
ligion should  be  founded;  and  so  the  Greek  Orthodox 
Church  became  the  church  of  Russia.  It  grew  to 
have  a  hold  upon  the  imagination  and  superstition 
of  the  ignorant  Russian  peasants.  It  ruled  their  re- 
ligious life  as  autocratically  as  ever  the  Czar  and 
his  nobles  ruled  the  politics  of  the  nation. 

But  now  has  come  the  great  breaking  up;  the  ice 
has  cracked,  and  the  mighty  current  is  carrying  away 
the  old  order.  The  Church,  as  an  organization,  is 
no  more  in  Russia;  yet  these  people  are  instinctively 
religious.  As  soon  as  they  settle  down  after  the  wild 
storm  which  is  sweeping  their  national  and  domestic 
life,  their  religious  temperament  will  again  manifest 
itself,  and  the  Russian  people  will  be  open  as  never 
before  to  vital  Christian  influence.  There  is  no  other 
place  from  which  there  is  such  ready  access  to  the 
heart  of  Russia  as  up  the  long  rivers  which  empty 

1  Christian  Approach  to  Islam,  Chapter  V. 


178  THE  NEAR  EAST 

into  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas.  Let  Christian  mis- 
sions be  once  dominant  in  Asia  Minor,  and  an  open 
course  lies  before  them  to  the  Russian  people. 

'A  Door  to  Western  Asia 

Baluchistan,  Afghanistan,  Bokhara,  Turkistan,  and 
Tibet  are  names  with  which  we  have  become  familiar 
in  our  study  of  geography.  With  the  exception  of 
Tibet,  we  know  these  lands  to  be  Mohammedan  in  re- 
ligion, wild  and  unsettled  in  their  civilization,  lands 
from  which  the  world  has  received  time  and  again 
shocks  of  invasion.  But  as  to  their  real  life,  manners, 
customs,  thoughts,  they  might  as  well  be  behind  an 
impassable  wall.  Yet  in  these  days  we  see  them  be- 
ginning to  emerge  in  their  contact  with  Europe  and 
the  West;  and  we  even  turn  with  longing  to  Siberia 
and  Turkistan  as  the  region  from  which  order  shall 
be  brought  to  the  Russian  chaos. 

How  can  these  people  be  best  reached,  for  Chris- 
tianity has  scarcely  been  so  much  as  mentioned  in 
their  hearing,  and  Christian  missions  have  had  scant 
opportunity  for  telling  their  message  of  peace  and 
good-will  upon  earth.  Persia  stands  as  the  great  bar- 
rier and  also  the  great  highway  to  these  interior  lands 
and  peoples. 

Sometimes  we  think  of  the  thrill  of  adventure  that 
must  have  come  to  the  pioneers  who  a  century  ago 
lifted  up  the  banner  of  the  Cross  for  the  first  time 
in  heathen  lands.  One  can  get  something  of  that  thrill 


THE  WORLD'S  CROSSROADS  179 

to-day  as  he  reads  the  stories  of  the  mission  at  Meshed, 
far  away  in  the  northeast  corner  of  Persia,  where  one 
hundred  thousand  pilgrims  come  every  year  to  wor- 
ship at  the  sacred  Moslem  shrine  of  Imam-Riza. 
"  Meshed  Hospital  holds  the  key  to  Afghanistan  and 
Central  Asia,"  says  Samuel  Zwemer;  and  the  little 
band  of  workers  there,  with  dauntless  faith  and  cour- 
age, reply,  "  We  have  it  in  our  power  to  make  this 
picture  a  reality."  x 

The  Way  to  Africa 

A  railway  from  Cairo  to  Capetown  has  been  for 
many  years  one  of  the  dreams  of  British  statesmen. 
It  will  undoubtedly  become  a  reality  within  the  life 
of  the  present  generation,  and  will  connect  the  life 
of  Cairo  and  Europe  directly  with  the  tribes  of  Cen- 
tral Africa.  The  railway  has  always  been  a  friend 
of  missions.  Just  as  the  Roman  roads  furnished  the 
Apostle  Paul  with  a  means  of  transit  for  his  mes- 
sage from  one  end  of  the  Roman  Empire  to  the  other, 
so  the  railway  in  our  modern  life  has  enabled  the 
missionaries  of  the  Cross  to  carry  with  speed  and 
efficiency  the  same  message  to  the  heart  of  heathen 
lands. 

Egypt  is  in  a  peculiar  sense  the  gateway  to  Africa. 
From  Egypt  flow  those  influences  which  are  molding 
to-day  the  life  of  the  savage  tribes,  the  influences  of 
trade,  of  commerce,  of  politics,  and  of  religion.  The 

1  Meshed  Medical  Mission  Stories. 


180  THE  NEAR  EAST 

missionaries  of  Islam,  trained  in  the  great  schools  of 
Cairo  or  bearing  the  wares  which  they  have  purchased 
in  Egyptian  bazaars,  traverse  the  Sudan  and  the  lake 
regions  of  eastern  Africa  and  reach  the  oases  of  the 
great  desert.  Egypt  must  also  be  a  stronghold  of 
missions  for  the  winning  of  the  dark  continent.1 


There  is  no  problem  confronting  the  Christian 
Church  in  its  work  of  world  evangelization  which 
has  been  more  puzzling  or  which  has  offered  more 
difficulties  for  over  a  thousand  years  than  the  ques- 
tion of  the  contact  with  Mohammedanism.  The 
Church  tried  to  solve  this  problem  in  the  Middle  Ages 
through  the  wars  of  the  Crusades.  It  was  an  era 
when  men  thought  that  all  questions  could  be  settled 
by  the  keenness  of  the  sword.  Something  of  that 
crusading  spirit  has  continued  in  most  of  the  mis- 
sionary enterprises  that  have  been  sent  to  Moslem 
lands,  forgetting  the  spirit  of  the  gospel  contained 
in  the  Prophet's  vision  of  victory,  "  Not  by  might, 
nor  by  power,  but  by  the  spirit  of  the  Master." 

If,  with  the  city  of  Damascus  as  a  center,  one 
should  describe  a  circle  with  a  radius  of  fifteen  hun- 
dred miles,  it  would  include  most  of  the  Mohamme- 
dan races  of  the  world.  Damascus,  Baghdad,  Cairo, 
and  Constantinople  have  successively  been  the  centers 
of  the  Moslem  faith,  the  residence  of  the  Caliph,  the 

1  The  Lure  of  Africa,  pages   113-117. 


THE  WORLD'S  CROSSROADS  181 

recognized  successor  of  Mohammed  as  head  of  this 
great  religion.  Mecca,  Medina,  Kerbela,  and  Jerusa- 
lem are  the  sacred  shrines  to  which  throng  the  faith- 
ful pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  the  Moslem  world.  In 
Cairo  is  Ipcated  the  University  of  El-Azhar,  where 
there  are  ten  thousand  students  in  training  as  Mo- 
hammedan teachers  and  priests.  This  University  is 
the  center  of  Mohammedan  thought  and  doctrine,  and 
from  it  go  forth  the  men  who  mold  Moslem  opinions, 
and  who  are  spreading  Mohammedanism  throughout 
the  countries  of  Africa  and  Asia.  If  the  supremacy 
of  Christianity  over  Mohammedanism  can  be  settled 
here  it  will  be  settled  for  all  the  world. 


The  Danger  Zone 

The  Near  East  has  been  called  the  "  Danger  Zone 
of  Europe."  Its  location  has  made  it  the  fruitful 
source  of  jealousies  among  European  powers;  but 
it  is  not  alone  as  a  political  menace  that  the  Near 
East  has  earned  this  name.  From  this  region  time 
and  again  there  have  spread  throughout  the  world 
diseases  that  have  decimated  civilized  nations.  Chol- 
era, plague,  typhus  fever,  and  smallpox  have  their 
lair  in  the  cities  and  villages  and  have  stalked  forth 
claiming  many  victims  throughout  Western  lands. 

In  a  typical  city  or  village  of  the  Near  East  all 
garbage  and  refuse  of  every  description  is  dumped 
from  the  houses  and  yards  into  the  public  street. 
Such  sewers  and  drains  as  exist  are  either  open  or 


182  THE  NEAR  EAST 

covered  with  ill-matched  flagstones.  Often  these 
drains  become  blocked,  and  the  sewerage  spreads  over 
the  streets  and  dooryards  of  the  homes.  Every  se- 
cluded corner  or  alleyway  is  a  menace  to  public  health 
and  morals.  Occasionally  carts  go  through  the  city 
and  collect  the  refuse,  carrying  it  to  the  suburbs,  where 
it  is  piled  up  near  the  gardens  to  be  used  as  fertilizer. 
These  piles  are  permitted  to  steam  and  rot  for  a 
period  of  two  years  and  are  then  spread  out  on  the 
gardens  where  the  vegetables  are  raised  and  from 
which  they  are  brought,  often  without  washing,  for 
sale  in  the  public  market.  Flies  breed  and  swarm 
in  these  rubbish  heaps  and  feed  tfpon  the  filth  in  the 
streets.  -Here  they  find  the  refuse  from  homes  where 
disease  has  prevailed  and  they  become  ready  messen- 
gers to  spread  germs  far  and  wide. 

There  is  no  system  of  covering  meat,  fruits,  and 
vegetables  displayed  in  the  markets.  There  is  no 
screening  of  doors  and  windows.  Street  venders  have 
their  stands  by  the  roadside,  where  dust  and  flies 
cover  the  article  offered  for  sale. 

Children  with  terrible  ophthalmic  cases  are  every- 
where on  the  streets.  Flies  gather  upon  their  sore 
eyes  and  then  speed  away  to  visit  some  one  not  yet 
affected.  Smallpox  is  considered  by  many  one  of 
the  diseases  which  it  is  expected  all  children  must 
have,  and  before  the  disease  is  healed  the  victims 
will  again  mingle  with  their  fellows. 

Spasmodic  efforts  have,  at  times,  been  made  to 
establish  some  form  of  quarantine  for  pilgrims  re- 


THE  WORLD'S  CROSSROADS  183 

turning  from  the  Holy  Shrine,  but  no  quarantine  pre- 
vents the  bringing  of  bottles  of  Holy  Water  from  the 
wells  in  these  sacred  places.  Time  and  again  cholera 
epidemics  have  been  directly  traced  to  water  brought 
in  this  way  by  returning  pilgrims.  A  pilgrim  from 
Mecca,  in  his  excess  of  religious  zeal,  brings  from 
the  sacred  well  of  Zem-Zem  a  large  bottle  of  Holy 
Water  and,  wishing  to  do  a  favor  to  his  townsmen 
by  sanctifying  their  water  supply,  he  empties  the 
whole  of  his  sacred  water  into  the  well  supplying  his 
own  village.  Cholera  follows  and  spreads  throughout 
the  region. 

Preventive  medicine  has  largely  expended  itself 
in  whitewashing  garden  walls  to  a  height  of  two  or 
three  feet  and  in  sprinkling  unslacked  lime  at  the 
doors  of  public  buildings  or  near  private  gateways. 
Commissions  of  experienced  physicians  have,  from 
time  to  time,  been  summoned  and  called  upon  for 
recommendations  as  to  improvement  in  hygienic  con- 
ditions, but,  as  with  most  Eastern  improvements,  they 
have  never  proceeded  further  than  the  plans  on  paper.. 

Every  year,  as  we  have  noted,  thousands  of  pilgrims 
from  all  parts  of  the  world,  from  Persia,  Afghanis- 
tan, and  Turkistan,  from  Russia,  western  Europe, 
Africa,  and  America,  visit  one  or  more  of  the  holy 
places  in  Palestine  or  Arabia.  Going  and  coming, 
these  pilgrims  pass  through  parts  of  Egypt  and  of 
Syria  and  mingle  one  with  another  on  steamboats, 
in  trains,  in  caravansaries.  For  the  great  mass  of 
pilgrims  there  are  no  sanitary  accommodations,  no- 


184  THE  NEAR  EAST 

opportunities  for  bathing,  and  there  is  usually  no 
change  of  garments  throughout  the  whole  pilgrimage. 
When  these  many  thousands  return  to  their  homes, 
Is  it  surprising  that  the  Near  East  should  become 
the  "Danger  Zone  of  the  World?" 

Need  for  Sanitary  Education 

In  view  of  these  conditions,  and  the  menace  which 
these  lands  are  to  the  health  of  the  world,  there  is 
clearly  an  immediate  demand  for  a  wide  campaign 
of  sanitary  education.  It  will  not  be  sufficient  to 
establish  hospitals  for  healing  diseases,  but  greater 
emphasis  must  be  placed  on  the  education  of  the  com- 
mon people  in  the  doctrine  of  the  clean  house,  the 
clean  yard,  the  clean  street,  and  death  to  the  fly. 
There  must  be  the  equipping  of  district  nurses  and 
the  carrying  of  this  sanitary  education  into  the  very 
homes.  This  necessitates  better  equipment  for  med- 
ical schools,  nurses'  training  schools,  and  research 
laboratories.  And  who  is  best  fitted  to  carry  on  this 
education  of  the  common  people,  foreigners  or  well- 
trained  native  nurses  and  doctors?  Where  and  how 
shall  these  be  trained? 

The  war  has  brought  many  things  to  the  Near 
East,  not  least  of  which  is  the  opportunity  for  healthy, 
clean  living.  But  how  shall  the  customs  of  centuries 
be  changed  to  the  belief  that  "  cleanliness  is  next  to 
godliness  "  ?  Just  here  it  would  be  profitable  to  study 
the  reports  of  the  American  Red  Cross  Commission 


THE  WORLD'S  CROSSROADS  185 

to  Palestine  and  to  note  the  splendid  things  accom- 
plished along  this  line  in  the  unspeakably  dirty  vil- 
lages of  that  district  and  in  the  city  of  Jerusalem 
itself.  Working  at  the  direct  invitation  of  the  British 
military  authorities,  this  Commission  followed  right 
in  behind  the  advance  of  General  Allenby's  army  and 
cleaned  up  as  they  went. 

The  problem  now  is  to  so  educate  the  people  to  the 
necessity  for  sanitary  conditions  that  they  will  be 
anxious  to  remain  clean.  Here  is  opportunity  for 
permanent  missionary  work. 

Relief  Work  and  Reconstruction 

Othman  laid  the  foundations  of  the  Ottoman  Em- 
pire in  Western  Asia  Minor.  His  successor,  Orchan, 
made  that  power  sure  by  organizing  his  corps  of 
"The  Janizaries."  He  took  a  thousand  young  boys 
from  among  the  Christian  captives  every  year,  in- 
structed them  in  the  Moslem  faith,  and  trained  them 
to  the  life  of  soldiers.  They  were  allowed  to  have 
no  association  with  their  families  and  were  taught 
to  look  to  the  Sultan  as  their  father  and  patron.  They 
became  his  body-guard  and  the  most  efficient  fighting 
machine  of  that  age.  They  made  Turkish  power  pos- 
sible throughout  the  great  extent  of  the  empire.  They 
dethroned  Sultans  and  set  them  up,  but  they  were 
always  loyal  to  the  House  of  Othman.  They  were 
feared  throughout  all  Europe. 

It  is  estimated  that  in  the  countries  of  the  Near 


186  THE  NEAR  EAST 

East  the  war  has  left  at  least  400,000  children  or- 
phans, who  must  be  cared  for  during  the  next  decade. 
What  might  this  not  mean,  were  the  Christian  people 
of  America  to  have  the  guidance,  under  proper  in- 
fluences, of  this  large  number  of  future  men  and 
women  of  the  Near  East!  Think  of  nearly  half  a 
million  boys  and  girls  trained  to  self-reliance  and  self- 
control  under  the  direction  of  those  who  have  regard, 
not  only  for  making  them  efficient  craftsmen,  farmers, 
merchants,  and  professional  men,  but  who  seek  also 
to  instill  the  principles  of  Christian  ethics,  of  Chris- 
tian stewardship,  and  of  humble  Christian  service 
as  loyal  to  the  true  cause  of  Christ  as  were  the  Jani- 
zaries to  the  House  of  Othman. 

Every  student  of  this  book  should  read  the  twenty- 
fourth  chapter  of  Ambassador  Morgenthau's  Story 
that  he  may  have  a  correct  picture  of  the  deporta- 
tions, massacres,  and  famine  that  prevailed  through- 
out the  Turkish  Empire  during  the  days  of  the  war. 
Not  only  within  Turkey  itself,  but  across  the  borders 
into  the  Russian  Caucasus  and  especially  into  western 
Persia  the  same  horrors  spread.  Thousands  of  refu- 
guees  escaped  across  the  boundary  lines,  but  this 
availed  them  little,  for  there  was  no  respect  paid  to 
geographical  lines,  the  same  scenes  of  terror  and 
distress  were  enacted  wherever  they  went.  Every  one 
should  hear  the  thrilling  story  of  15,000  defenseless 
Armenians  and  Syrians  protected  for  months  in  the 
American  Mission  compound  of  Urumia  by  the  Stars 
and  Stripes  flying  over  the  gateway,  and  of  the  five 


THE  WORLD'S  CROSSROADS  187 

intrepid  American  missionaries  who  defied  the  mob 
to  pull  down  that  flag. 

All  through  the  period  of  the  war  practically  the 
whole  time  of  the  mission  force  on  the  field  was 
taken  up  with  the  distribution  of  the  funds  collected 
by  the  American  Committee  for  Relief  in  the  Near 
East  and  the  English  Palestine  Relief  Fund.  What 
superb  work  these  committees  have  done  in  raising 
money,  and  later  in  sending  workers  to  feed  the 
hungry,  clothe  the  naked,  and  rescue  the  homeless! 
Two  million  dollars  a  month  America  alone  has  been 
putting  into  the  work  of  this  committee.  In  addition 
to  this,  the  Red  Cross,  ever  present  where  humanity 
cries  for  help,  responded  to  the  call  of  General  Allenby 
and  entered  Palestine  and  Syria,  where  they  cared 
for  the  refugees  rescued  by  the  British  forces  and 
helped  put  in  order  the  disorganized  land  through 
which  they  moved. 

No  one  can  measure  the  generations  of  hatred  and 
prejudice  which  have  been  stored  up  by  the  injustice 
and  cruelties  of  the  present  war.  What  a  relief  it  is, 
therefore,  to  come  in  contact  with  the  gratitude  and 
love  which  lias  been  promoted  by  this  great  work  of 
relief.  From  all  the  peoples  of  the  Near  East,  Chris- 
tian, Mohammedan,  Jew,  Persian,  Armenian,  Turk, 
and  Syrian,  there  is  one  common  voice  of  gratitude 
to  America  for  the  abundant  relief  which  she  has 
poured  out  for  these  stricken  people.  They  had  come 
to  know  something  of  America  and  Americans 
through  the  influence  of  the  schools  and  hospitals 


188  THE  NEAR  EAST 

and  mission  work,  but  they  had  never  before  realized 
that  there  could  be  such  a  disinterested,  unprejudiced 
outpouring  of  brotherly  aid.  The  work  of  this  Re- 
lief Committee  has  not  only  saved  the  lives  of  mil- 
lions of  human  beings,  but  it  has  also  saved  their 
faith  in  men. 

It  is  impossible  to  measure  the  influence  of  this 
work  as  a  molding  power  for  the  future.  The  great 
problem  of  the  Near  East  is  not  that  of  natural 
resources,  but  of  man  power.  Hence  the  mere  sav- 
ing of  as  many  lives  as  possible  is  a  direct  contribution 
to  the  great  human  problem,  but  more  than  that,  the 
example  of  unselfish  service,  the  spirit  of  gratitude, 
and  the  maintenance  of  hope  and  faith  have  contributed 
immeasurably  to  the  molding  of  the  future  of  these 
lands.  Whatever  may  come  of  political  intrigue,  of 
racial  jealousies,  and  of  national  separations,  one 
thing  is  sure  to  abide  and  that  is  the  influence  of 
this  fellowship  of  suffering  and  the  fellowship  of 
relief. 

The  Challenge  of  To-day 

"  Hear  ye  now  what  the  Lord  saith.  Arise,  con- 
tend thou  before  the  mountains  and  let  the  hills  hear 
thy  voice,"  says  the  Prophet  of  Judah  as  he  challenges 
the  people  of  his  day  to  plead  their  cause  and  to  learn 
what  God  requires  of  men. 

The  same  challenge  is  issued  to  the  men  of  the 
world  to-day.  First  of  all  to  Christian  statesmanship 
in  the  realm  of  international  questions,  to  so  dispose 


THE  WORLD'S  CROSSROADS  189 

of  the  problems  of  these  Eastern  lands  that  they  shall 
cease  to  be  a  menace  to  the  world.  And  such  solution 
can  be  obtained  only  when  they  forsake  the  thought 
of  political  bargains,  territorial  accessions,  and  provin- 
cial greed.  To  political  statesmanship  the  challenge  is, 
in  the  words  of  the  Prophet  Amos,  "  Let  justice  roll 
down  as  waters  and  righteousness  as  a  mighty  stream." 

The  second  challenge  to  Christian  statesmanship  is 
that  of  the  statesmen  of  the  Church.  Where  else  in 
all  the  world  can  be  found  such  a  center  in  which 
to  set  the  lamp  upon  the  lampstand?  This  is  the 
very  region  which  God  himself  chose  from  which  to 
make  his  complete  revelation  to  men.  For  one  hun- 
dred years  foundations  have  been  laid  in  schools,  col- 
leges, hospitals,  literature,  and  preaching.  These  past 
four  years  the  Relief  Committee  have  laid  the  great 
corner-stone  inscribed,  "  Inasmuch  as  ye  did  it  unto 
one  of  the  least  of  these,  ye  did  it  unto  me."  The 
challenge  now  comes  to  build  upon  this  foundation 
such  an  edifice  as  shall  give  forth  its  light  to  the 
north,  to  the  south,  to  the  east,  and  to  the  west. 

A  challenge  also  goes  forth  to  the  people  of  these 
lands.  Now  is  their  opportunity  to  come  into  their 
own;  to  cease  living  in  the  past  with  bowed  heads  and 
cringing  mien;  to  rise  and  stand  upon  their  feet  and 
show  themselves  worthy  of  the  new  day  which  is  dawn- 
ing for  them.  Darkness  and  oppression  have  been 
upon  them  for  centuries.  Racial  hatred  and  religious 
rivalries  have  held  them  back  for  a  thousand  years. 
This  new  day  challenges  them  to  cast  aside  the  incubus 


190  THE  NEAR  EAST 

of  divisions  and  to  lay  hold  with  one  united  effort, 
upon  the  opportunity  that  this  day  has  brought  to  them 
commercially,  morally,  and  religiously. 

Tradition  says  that  it  was  a  monk  from  Syria  who, 
leaping  down  into  the  arena  of  Rome,  raised  aloft 
the  Cross  of  Christ  and  in  His  Name  forbade  the 
continuance  of  the  gladiatorial  combats.  He  lost  his 
life,  but  he  saved  the  people.  In  this  new  day  shall 
not  these  Eastern  people  hold  aloft,  as  in  the  first 
centuries,  the  sign  of  universal  peace  and  prosperity? 

And  the  final  challenge  is  to  American  Christianity. 
The  forces  of  other  nations  are  wearied  and  prostrate 
from  the  great  war.  America  stands  as  a  thoroughly 
trained,  unwearied  athlete  ready  for  the  great  contest. 
In  these  Eastern  lands  America  has  a  great  store  of 
gratitude  as  a  tremendous  asset  for  success. 

Nineteen  hundred  years  ago  on  the  plains  of  Troy, 
the  Jewish  apostle  of  Christ  beheld  a  man  saying, 
"  Come  over  to  Macedonia  and  help  us,"  and  the 
next  ship  saw  him  and  his  comrades  on  his  way  to 
the  West.  To-day  there  is  the  vision  of  the  man  say- 
ing, "  Come  over  to  the  East  and  help  us."  This  is 
the  challenge  to  American  Christianity.  It  comes  to 
us  as  to  the  people  of  no  other  land,  and  it  comes 
to-day. 

The  lands  of  the  Levant,  the  first  lands  of  history, 
the  lands  we  have  all  learned  to  love  in  legend,  in 
story,  and  religion,  and  the  people  of  these  lands  send 
out  their  call  for  help,  the  Challenge  of  To-day. 


THE  WORLD'S  CROSSROADS  191 

What  of  To-morrow? 

To  the  people  of  the  Near  East  the  statesmen  of 
Europe  and  America  have  held  out  the  hope  that  a 
new  day  is  dawning.  They  have  been  assured  that 
there  will  be  an  opportunity  to  have  their  age-long 
passion  for  freedom  satisfied.  They  have  been  prom- 
ised help,  not  exploitation.  The  larger  nations,  under 
the  influences  that  have  burned  brightly  in  war  time, 
have  pledged  the  assistance  of  older  brothers.  Are 
these  promises  and  pledges  to  be  redeemed  in  good 
faith  ?  The  day  is  at  hand,  the  question  presses  now. 

There  is  the  question  of  "mandatory."  This  is 
a  new  term  used  to  signify  a  steward  or  trustee  of 
the  nations.  Who  shall  those  mandatories  be?  Shall 
they  be  simply  assigned  by  the  powers  of  Europe  or 
shall  the  peoples  themselves  have  some  word  as  to 
who  is  most  desired?  Shall  a  nation  when  asked, 
accept  or  decline? 

And  what  of  America  in  the  Near  East?  Shall 
she  help  as  she  has  already  helped  in  Cuba  and  the 
Philippines,  or  shall  she  plead,  "  America  first  and 
only  "  ?  "  Who  knoweth  but  thou  art  come  to  the 
kingdom  for  such  a  time  as  this  ?  " 

And  what  of  the  pressure  of  the  missionary  de- 
mand? It  is  only  a  day  from  daylight  to  dawn,  and 
"  to-morrow  "  is  almost  here.  What  if  the  Church 
should  delay  and  miss  the  opportunity!  Commercial 
expansion,  industrial  readjustment,  social  transforma- 
tion, educational  advancement,  political  reorganiza- 


192  THE  NEAR  EAST 

tion — all  these  are  sure  to  come  speedily.  What  shall 
the  spiritual  life  be,  cold  indifference,  scoffing  atheism, 
or  a  warm,  glowing,  enthusiastic  fellowship  with  Jesus 
Christ?  Any  one  of  these  is  possible. 

"  And  if  thou  altogether  holdest  thy  peace  at  this 
time,  then  shall  there  enlargement  and  deliverance 
arise  from  another  place." 


VIII 
SHALL  THE  LAND  BE  HEALED? 


CHAPTER  EIGHT 

SHALL  THE  LAND  BE   HEALED? 

By  James  L.  Barton 

whatever  standpoint  one  approaches  the 
Near  East,  the  interest  and  emotions  aroused  are 
more  intense  and  fundamental  than  those  stirred  by 
any  other  groups  of  countries.  Why  this  is  so  the 
preceding  seven  chapters  abundantly  reveal.  Here 
are  the  "  Holy  Lands  "  of  nearly  one  half  the  world's 
population. 

No  other  part  of  the  world  calls  for  more  thorough 
study  of  the  adjustments  that  are  needed  in  the  years 
following  the  war.  The  common  sentiment  of  hu- 
manity demands  for  these  stricken  nations  a  new  or- 
der of  justice  and  righteousness.  Everywhere  men 
are  following  with  keen  interest  and  deep  feeling  such 
reports  of  the  rapid  and  confusing  shifts  in  the  Near 
Eastern  political  situation  as  are  allowed  to  appear. 
Through  the  uncertainty  and  misunderstanding  that 
have  surrounded  these  lands  since  the  cessation  of  hos- 
tilities in  1918  the  world  now  looks  anxiously  for  the 
just  settlement  which  it  trusts  that  the  League  of 

195 


196  THE  NEAR  EAST 

Nations  will  be  able  to  bring  to  the  affairs  of  these 
distracted  peoples.  Public  opinion  in  all  countries 
should  realize  the  complex  and  difficult  nature  of  the 
task. 

Throughout  the  Near  East  the  tides  of  ancient 
hatreds  and  modern  rivalries  dash  high  and  hard,  as 
they  have  done  for  centuries,  against  uncertain  bound- 
ary lines.  It  is  here  that  religion  has  played  a  con- 
spicuous part  in  building  high  racial  barriers  and  in 
drawing  around  multiplied  nationalities  impassable 
partition  walls.  The  war  and  its  aftermath  have 
tended,  not  to  the  amelioration  of  these  conflicting 
forces  and  conditions,  but  rather  to  their  intensifica- 
tion. 

The  Near  East  is  not  a  country,  but  an  area  of 
widely  extending  territory  connecting  Persia  with 
Europe,  forming  a  bridge  between  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  Black  seas,  providing  a  foundation  for  a  rail- 
road connecting  the  Bosphorus  with  the  Gulf  of 
Arabia,  and  holding  a  corner  of  Russia  south  of  the 
Balkans  still  uncontrolled  by  Bolshevism. 

Mesopotamia  has  nothing  in  common  with  Trans- 
caucasia except  unrest;  while  Syria  lies  in  a  world 
entirely  by  itself  as  far  as  Armenia  and  Anatolia  are 
concerned. 

Transcaucasus 

In  the  Transcaucasus,  extending  from  the  Black 
Sea  to  the  Caspian,  and  from  the  Caucasus  Moun- 


SHALL  THE  LAND  BE  HEALED?       197 

tains  to  Persia  and  Turkey,  there  are  three  outstand- 
ing races :  the  Georgians,  the  Tartars,  or  Azerbaijans, 
and  the  Armenians.  Soon  after  the  Armistice,  each 
one  of  these  proclaimed  a  republic.  The  Georgian  re- 
public is  the  only  one  of  the  three  which  reaches  to 
the  Black  Sea,  and  the  Azerbaijan  republic  the  only 
one  touching  upon  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  republic 
of  Armenia  is  in  a  geographical  and  political  pocket, 
shut  in  by  the  Georgians  on  the  north,  the  Tartars 
on  the  east,  and  upon  the  south  and  west  by  the  Kurds 
and  the  Turks.  The  capital  of  the  Georgian  republic 
is  Tiflis,  of  the  Azerbaijan  republic,  Baku,  and  of 
Armenia,  Erivan. 

Not  one  of  these  new  republics  possesses  a  popula- 
tion of  more  than  three  million  souls.  They  all  fear 
the  early  return  of  Russia,  realizing  well  that  they  will 
not  be  able  to  resist  the  powerful  military  force  now 
operating  in  southern  Russia  and  approaching  nearer 
and  nearer  to  the  Caucasus.  Because  of  this  fear  pri- 
marily, they  clamor  for  recognition  and  help  to 
strengthen  and  provide  for  the  defense  of  their  respec- 
tive governments. 

Most  unfortunately  these  new  republics  in  the 
Caucasus  are  not  friendly  one  with  the  other.  The 
Georgians,  although  nominally  a  Christian  race,  are 
more  inclined  to  train  with  the  Tartars  than  with  the 
Armenians,  while  the  latter  fraternize  with  neither. 
Add  to  these  conditions  the  possible  early  return  of  the 
Russians  under  the  red  flag,  and  also  the  fact  that 
national  boundary  lines  are  largely  imaginary,  and 


198  THE  NEAR  EAST 

we  have  a  fair  picture  of  the  political  and  racial 
questions  of  the  Caucasus. 

Turkey 

Upon  the  Turkish  side  of  the  line  matters  are  no 
less  confused  and  confusing.  Here  there  are  five 
conflicting  and  rival  national  elements :  the  Turks,  the 
Greeks,  the  Armenians,  the  Syrians,  and  the  Arabs, 
not  to  mention  the  Kurds. 

We  can  set  aside  the  new  Arab  kingdom  under  King 
Hussein  as  not  a  part  of  our  present  discussion.  There 
is  just  now  a  marked  harmony  between  the  Syrians 
and  the  Arabs,  who  together  are  demanding  an  inde- 
pendent Syria  in  which  the  Arabic  language  is  spoken 
and  which  embraces  both  Christian  Syrians  and  Mos- 
lem Arabs. 

The  eastern  and  southern  boundary  of  this  pro- 
posed republic  of  Syria,  or  federation  of  Arab  states, 
as  some  have  suggested,  is  somewhat  hazy.  It  would 
probably  extend  eastward  to  the  Persian  border  and 
to  that  part  of  Mesopotamia  already  held  by  Great 
Britain,  and  southward  to  include  that  part  of  Arabia 
not  already  claimed  by  the  kingdom  of  the  Hedjas  and 
the  British.  Whether  or  not  Palestine  will  be  a  part 
of  this  proposed  new  government  is  not  yet  evident. 

North  of  Syria,  extending  to  the  Black  Sea  and 
bordering  at  the  northeast  upon  the  new  republic  of 
Armenia-in-Russia,  is  Armenia-in-Turkey,  whose 
hope  and  prayer  has  been  and  still  is  that  the  entire 
area  including  Russian  Armenia  and  the  lesser  Ar- 


SHALL  THE  LAND  BE  HEALED?       199 

menia  or  Cilicia  might  be  erected  into  a  united  and 
independent  Armenian  state,  with  ports  upon  both 
the  Black  and  the  Mediterranean  seas.  The  western 
boundary  of  this  proposed  new  Armenia  is  necessarily 
undefined  and,  if  decided  at  all,  must  be  settled  either 
upon  the  basis  of  population  or  by  some  arbitrary 
decision. 

Upon  the  west  of  this  indefinite  Armenia,  extend- 
ing to  the  ^gean  Sea  at  Smyrna  and  to  the  environs 
of  Constantinople  yet  to  be  defined,  is  Anatolia,  in 
which  the  major  part  of  the  population  is  Turkish. 
This  area  has  been  discussed  at  length  around  the 
peace  table  in  Paris  and  in  the  press,  as  the  possible 
legatee  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  Within  this  same 
territory  there  are  many  Armenians  and  Greeks  who 
have  lived  there  for  centuries  and  who  are  as  much 
citizens  of  the  country  as  are  the  Turks. 

Constantinople  has  been  much  in  the  public  eye 
when  the  question  of  mandatories  has  been  under 
discussion.  The  name  "  Constantinople  "  in  this  case 
is  not  intended  to  mean  simply  the  city  upon  the  Bos- 
phorus,  but  includes  all  that  will  remain  of  Turkey 
in  Europe  after  the  final  adjustments  with  the  Balkan 
States  have  been  completed,  together  with  the  southern 
shores  of  the  Bosphorus,  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  and 
the  Dardanelles.  This  city,  with  the  environs  as 
thus  outlined,  is  under  consideration  to  be  set  apart 
as  an  international  area  directly  under  the  League  of 
Nations  and  so  governed  quite  distinctly  from  that 
of  any  of  the  other  areas  above  mentioned. 


200  THE  NEAR  EAST 

The  Turks,  however,  with  considerable  support 
from  some  Europeans  are  strongly  resisting  the  trans- 
ference of  their  capital  to  the  interior. 

This  gives  us  six  distinct  and  separate  countries 
or  governments  or  areas  in  the  former  Turkish  Em- 
pire, each  desiring  to  be  erected  into  an  independent 
state  under  a  mandatory.  To  recapitulate,  these  are : 
The  republics  of  Georgia,  of  Azerbaijan,  of  Armenia 
(to  include  both  Russian  and  Turkish  Armenia), 
Syria  or  the  federated  Arab  states,  Anatolia,  and  Con- 
stantinople. 

It  is  evident  to  all  who  have  studied  the  situation 
that  none  of  these  countries,  if  recognized  as  inde- 
pendent governments,  now  possesses  the  capacity  for 
self-government.  Apart  from  Turkey,  none  of  these 
has  had  any  experience  in  governmental  affairs,  and 
Turkey  has  proved  her  incapacity  by  her  miserable 
failures.  All  these  aspiring  new  nations  confess 
their  inability  for  unaided  self -administration  and 
ask  for  help  from  without.  It  left  to  themselves, 
disorder  and  revolution  will  follow  disorder  and  revo- 
lution. The  mutual  rivalries  and  jealousies  and  an- 
cient feuds  which  exist  throughout  the  entire  country 
covered  by  these  conflicting  nationalities  would  lead 
almost  immediately,  if  left  unprotected  and  unguided, 
to  internal  disorder  and  international  strife  in  the 
most  aggravated  forms,  repeating  the  horrors  of 
racial,  feudal,  and  religious  hatreds  in  the  form 
of  extensive  brigandage  and  wide-sweeping  mas- 
sacres. 


SHALL  THE  LAND  BE  HEALED?  201 

Egypt 

Since  the  protectorate  of  Egypt  has  been  estab- 
lished, the  allied  governments  have  given  assent  to 
President  Wilson's  principles  of  self-determination. 
This  has  caused  a  renewal  of  nationalistic  aspirations 
in  Egypt,  which  have  taken  form  in  violent  uprisings 
against  all  foreign  control.  The  cry  of  "  Egypt  for 
the  Egyptians  "  has  long  been  the  key-note  of  the  na- 
tionalistic parties,  and  during  the  past  year  it  has  taken 
definite  form  in  a  demand  for  the  absolute  withdrawal 
of  England  from  Egypt,  and  also  for  the  expulsion  of 
all  foreigners  from  the  country. 

At  first  glance  this  movement  might  receive  a  sym- 
pathetic response  from  all  liberty-loving  people,  but 
what  is  true  freedom?  If  Egypt  were  handed  over 
to  this  party,  would  it  represent  as  much  national  free- 
dom as  they  enjoy  under  the  dominion  of  the  British 
Colonial  system?  Is  a  country  which  is  ruled  by  a 
bureaucracy  or  an  autocracy  a  free  country?  Unfor- 
tunately, early  in  the  development  of  this  national 
spirit  its  leaders  coupled  it  with  similar  movements 
in  Turkey  and  Persia,  and  with  the  Pan-Islam  move- 
ment. Now  one  sixteenth  of  the  population  of  Egypt 
are  Christian  Copts,  who  are  direct  descendants  from 
the  ancient  Egyptians.  They  would  be  wholly  left 
out  in  a  national  movement  which  was  strictly  Mo- 
hammedan. 

The  nationalistic  parties  have  not  yet  learned  to 
distinguish  between  a  fanatical  religious  movement 


202  THE  NEAR  EAST 

and  a  patriotic  movement  which  includes  all  classes. 
The  movement  in  Persia  resulted  in  anarchy.  In 
Turkey  it  brought  about  not  only  a  worse  govern- 
ment than  that  which  prevailed  in  the  days  of  Abdul 
Hamid,  but  it  has  resulted  in  the  final  destruction 
of  the  Empire.  The  effects  of  trusting  an  impor- 
tant waterway  like  the  Dardanelles  to  such  a  gov- 
ernment as  that  of  the  Turks  have  been  seen.  Is  it 
safe  now  to  pass  over  another  important  waterway, 
the  Suez  Canal,  to  a  party  in  Egypt  which  has  not  yet 
demonstrated  its  freedom  from  religious  bias  and 
racial  fanaticism  ? * 

Mandatories 

Conscious  of  these  conditions  and  needs,  the  Peace 
Conference  made  provision  for  establishing  and  main- 
taining order  in  all  parts  of  the  Turkish  Empire. 
Article  22  of  the  Covenant  of  the  League  reads  in 
part  as  follows: 

"  To  those  colonies  and  territories  which  as  a  con- 
sequence of  the  late  war  have  ceased  to  be  under  the 
sovereignty  of  the  states  which  formerly  governed 
them  and  which  are  inhabited  by  peoples  not  yet  able 
to  stand  by  themselves  under  the  strenuous  conditions 
of  the  modern  world,  there  should  be  applied  the 
principle  that  the  well-being  and  development  of  such 
peoples  form  a  sacred  trust  of  civilization  and  that 
securities  for  the  performance  of  this  trust  shall  be 
embodied  in  this  Covenant.  The  best  method  of  giv- 

1  The  New  Map  of  Europe,  page  397. 


SHALL  THE  LAND  BE  HEALED?  203 

ing  practical  effect  to  this  principle  is  that  the  tutelage 
of  such  people  shall  be  intrusted  to  advanced  na- 
tions, who,  by  reason  of  their  resources,  their  ex- 
perience, or  their  geographical  position,  can  best  un- 
dertake this  responsibility,  and  who  are  willing  to 
accept  it,  and  that  this  tutelage  should  be  exercised 
by  them  as  mandatories  on  behalf  of  the  League. 
...  Certain  communities  formerly  belonging  to  the 
Turkish  Empire  have  reached  a  stage  of  development 
where  their  existence  as  independent  nations  can  be 
provisionally  recognized  subject  to  the  rendering  of 
administrative  advice  and  assistance  by  a  mandatory 
until  such  time  as  they  are  able  to  stand  alone.  The 
wishes  of  these  communities  must  be  a  principal  con- 
sideration in  the  selection  of  the  mandatory." 

Who  should  accept  these  Mandatories? 

This  leads  to  the  practical  question  of  who  shall 
take  the  mandatory  of  these  former  dependencies  upon 
the  Turkish  Empire  and  upon  Russia. 

The  most  obvious  and  natural  reply  is  that  England 
should  assume  this  responsibility.  England  has  been 
the  most  successful  nation  in  organizing,  training,  and 
controlling  native  alien  populations.  Her  experience 
extends  over  a  long  period  of  time  and  embraces 
a  great  variety  of  Asiatic  and  African  peoples.  As 
many  of  the  peoples  within  the  territory  outlined 
above  are  Mohammedans,  and  as  England  already 
rules  over  more  than  ninety  millions  of  people  of 


204  THE  NEAR  EAST 

this  religion,  it  is  natural  to  assume  that  England's 
experience  eminently  equips  her  for  this  task.  Almost 
by  common  consent  the  civilized  world  has  mentally 
selected  England  for  this  responsibility. 

On  the  other  hand,  England  takes  the  position  that, 
as  she  has  lost  enormously  in  her  man  power  and 
financial  strength  through  the  war,  she  is  unable  to 
add  this  no  small  task  to  what  she  is  already  bearing. 
She  points  to  the  conditions  in  Egypt  and  India  which 
compel  her  to  give  much  attention  to  readjustment 
and  reorganization  there,  preventing  her  withdrawing 
her  resources  from  these  two  great  countries  to  which 
she  is  irrevocably  committed.  She  therefore  has  come 
to  the  conclusion  that  she  has  neither  the  men  nor 
the  money  to  set  up  for  these  dependent  peoples  in 
Turkey  the  government  they  deserve, — in  fact,  that 
which  they  must  have,  if  the  Near  East  is  to  remain 
in  order. 

We  cannot  escape  the  fact  that  some  of  the  people 
dwelling  in  the  above  outlined  areas  have  fear  that 
if  England  should  come  in  and  assume  the  responsi- 
bility of  the  mandatory,  it  might  ultimately  result 
in  permanent  control  if  not  in  annexation.  Many 
of  the  leaders  have  asked :  "  Where  has  England  ever 
entered  a  country  with  her  military  forces  and  later 
withdrawn?"  Egypt  and  India  and  other  countries 
have  been  cited  as  examples  of  places  into  which 
England  has  sent  troops  to  maintain  order,  but  where 
she  remains  to-day  as  ruler. 

As  these  would-be  independent  states  desire  ultimate 


SHALL  THE  LAND  BE  HEALED?  205 

and  absolute  independence  and  self-government,  they 
hesitate  to  express  approval  of  a  plan  which  might 
result  otherwise.  They  also  realize  that  for  the  future 
defense  of  Persia,  India,  and  Egypt  it  might  seem  to 
Great  Britain  necessary,  in  the  not  distant  future,  to 
take  permanent  possession  of  the  territories  which,  in 
a  large  measure,  furnish  the  military  key  to  the  politi- 
cal situation. 

The  Russian  representatives  in  Paris  declared  that 
they  would  never  yield  Russian  Armenia  to  either 
England  or  France,  and  therefore,  if  England  should 
assume  the  mandatory  of  Armenia,  it  could  be  but 
over  that  part  of  Armenia  lying  within  the  boundary 
of  the  old  Turkish  Empire.  There  would  also  be 
difficulties  with  Cilicia  or  Lesser  Armenia,  since  that 
territory  is  desired  by  France  and  the  French  have 
officially  announced  that  they  would  never  recognize 
England  as  the  mandatory  over  that  part  of  Armenia; 
hence  if  England  should  assume  the  mandatory  of 
Armenia  it  could  be  but  the  middle  section  lying  in 
Turkey,  Russian  Armenia  and  Cilicia  being  separated 
from  it.  The  Russians  took  the  same  attitude  toward 
France  as  a  mandatory  over  Russian  Armenia.  The 
Armenians  would  gladly  accept  England  as  the  man- 
datory power  under  whose  directions  they  were  to 
form  their  new  government  if  it  were  possible  to 
hold  Armenia  together  under  England,  but  in  view 
of  the  facts  as  above  stated,  they  have  turned  else- 
where. The  Turks  would  accept  England  as  second 
choice  and  so  would  the  Syrians,  according  to  the  re- 


206  THE  NEAR  EAST 

port  of  the  Paris  Commission  to  Syria  and  Turkey 
led  by  President  King  and  Charles  R.  Crane. 

The  European  powers  are  loath  to  put  Constanti- 
nople into  the  hands  of  a  first-class  European  nation. 
This  is  a  continuation  of  the  old  question  of  who 
shall  rule  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  theory  is  that 
the  first-class  power  holding  Constantinople  will  have 
a  fair  chance  of  becoming  the  master  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, with  control  of  the  direct  route  to  India. 
This  rules  out  both  England  and  France.  The  King 
Commission  learned,  after  most  painstaking  investi- 
gation, that  Syria  and  Arabia  desire  England  as  man- 
datory only  as  second  choice,  but  absolutely  repudiate 
the  idea  of  coming  under  the  control  of  France. 

The  Wishes  of  the  People 

Reverting  to  the  Covenant  of  the  League  of  Na- 
tions, we  note  that  the  wishes  of  the  communities 
to  be  governed  are  to  have  principal  consideration 
in  the  selection  of  the  mandatory.  It  is  an  interesting 
fact  that  the  countries  named  above  have  expressed 
a  strong  desire  that  the  United  States  take  the  man- 
datory of  each.  The  Armenians,  because  of  reasons 
given  above  and  also  because,  for  the  last  hundred 
years,  they  have  in  large  numbers  been  under  the 
tutelage  of  American  teachers  in  American  schools, 
have  been  unanimous  in  their  wishes  in  this  direction. 
The  King  Commission  reports  that  at  least  eighty  per 
cent  of  the  people  of  Syria  and  Arabia  have  regis- 


SHALL  THE  LAND  BE  HEALED?  207 

tered  themselves  in  favor  of  having  their  country 
come  under  the  mandatory  of  the  United  States,  men- 
tioning England  as  second  choice,  but,  as  already 
stated,  rejecting  France  altogether.  In  Anatolia  the 
Turks  as  well  as  the  non-Moslem  populations  ask  for 
America  as  the  nation  most  trusted  and,  in  their  judg- 
ment, the  best  able  to  restore  order  and  give  a  safe 
and  just  government.  England,  France,  and  other 
interested  nations  and  peoples  would  welcome  the 
United  States  as  the  mandatory  of  Constantinople. 
In  the  minds  of  none  of  these  is  there  suspicion  that 
America,  thus  entering  into  the  political  life  of  the 
Near  East,  would  have  any  temptation  to  plan  for 
permanence  or  would  develop  national  or  interna- 
tional territorial  ambitions.  This  is  perhaps  the  only 
thing  upon  which  all  these  rival  and  contending  races 
ever  did  unite,  and  in  this  they  seem  to  be  agreed, 
that  America  is  their  friend,  has  no  desire  for  an- 
nexation or  permanent  control,  and  no  ulterior  mo- 
tive except  to  serve  the  people,  to  secure  for  them 
safety,  justice,  and  prosperity,  and  put  them  upon  the 
high  road  to  self-government.  Their  love  for  and 
confidence  in  the  United  States  is  almost  pathetic. 

The  Opportunity  of  the  United  States 

Why  should  not  the  United  States  accept?  America 
is  known  and  honored  by  all  these  countries  on  account 
of  the  work  of  her  missionaries  during  the  last  cen- 
tury. The  people  of  all  races  have  deep  admiration 


208  THE  NEAR  EAST 

for  the  many  American  institutions  of  education  and 
mercy  which  have  been  planted  in  all  sections  of  this 
country  except  in  the  Russian  Caucasus.  In  times  of 
famine  and  massacre  millions  of  dollars  of  relief 
money  have  been  raised  in  America  and  distributed 
by  the  Americans  to  the  suffering,  irrespective  of 
race,  color,  or  religion.  Many  of  the  leaders  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country  have  received  their  educa- 
tion and  training  at  the  hands  of  American  teachers 
and  in  institutions  that,  in  the  name  of  American 
philanthropy,  have  imparted  modern  Western  edu- 
cation. 

America  has  the  men  who  are  quite  capable  of  ad- 
ministering the  affairs  of  any  one  or  of  all  of  these 
proposed  new  states.  Our  losses  in  the  war,  compared 
with  the  losses  of  our  European  allies,  were  negligible. 
We  have  no  outstanding  colonies  making  heavy  de- 
mand upon  our  young  manhood,  as  is  the  case  in  Eng- 
land and  France.  We  would  not  for  a  moment  ac- 
knowledge that  our  men  have  not  the  full  capacity  to 
supply  every  need  which  this  new  service  would  de- 
mand. Not  a  few  of  our  men  have  had  extended  and 
successful  experience  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  where 
the  demands  were  quite  similar  to  those  which  would 
be  put  upon  them  in  the  Near  East.  A  field  of  service 
of  this  character  would  provide  a  worthy  and  a  much 
desired  outlet  for  the  talent  and  capacity  of  a  large 
number  of  able  young  men. 

In  this  connection  and  to  show  how  closely  allied  our 
work  in  the  Philippines  was  to  that  now  contemplated 


SHALL  THE  LAND  BE  HEALED?  209 

in  the  Near  East,  I  quote  briefly  from  the  instruction 
of  President  McKinley  to  the  Philippine  Commission 
given  on  April  7,  1900 :  "  The  Commission  should  bear 
in  mind  that  the  government  which  they  are  establish- 
ing is  designed,  not  for  our  satisfaction  or  the  ex- 
pression of  our  theoretical  views,  but  for  the  happi- 
ness, peace,  and  prosperity  of  the  people  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands,  and  the  measures  adopted  should  be 
made  to  conform  to  their  customs,  their  habits,  and 
even  their  prejudices  to  the  fullest  extent  consistent 
with  the  accomplishment  of  the  indispensable  requi- 
sites of  just  and  effective  government.  .  .  .  The  main 
body  of  the  law  which  regulates  the  rights  and  obliga- 
tions of  the  people  should  be  maintained  with  as  little 
interference  as  possible.  .  .  .  That  no  form  of  re- 
ligion and  no  ministers  of  religion  shall  be  forced  upon 
any  community  or  upon  any  citizen  of  the  Islands. 
That,  upon  the  other  hand,  no  ministers  of  religion 
shall  be  interfered  with  or  molested  in  following  their 
calling,  and  that  the  separation  between  state  and 
church  shall  be  real,  entire,  and  absolute." 

One  needs  but  to  compare  this  statement  with  the 
general  tenor  and  spirit  of  the  Covenant  of  the  League 
of  Nations  bearing  upon  this  point  and  especially  with 
the  charter  under  which  mandatories  are  to  be  con- 
ducted, not  yet  been  made  public,  to  see  that  America 
twenty  years  ago  discovered  the  true  spirit  of  manda- 
tories and  has  had  one  in  actual  and  successful  opera- 
tion in  the  Philippines  for  two  decades.  These  twenty 
years  are  a  chapter  most  creditable  in  our  national  his- 


210  THE  NEAR  EAST 

tory.  After  having  performed  this  service  so  success- 
fully and  without  precedent,  none  can  doubt  the  ca- 
pacity of  America  to  repeat  the  experiment  in  the  Near 
East  with  equal  success. 

America  has  the  wealth  and  resources.  We  need 
not  dwell  upon  this  point.  The  task  would  require 
men  for  civil  and  gendarmerie  service.  General  Har- 
bord  estimates  that  if  America  should  take  the  manda- 
tory of  the  entire  country,  there  would  be  required  at 
the  outset  two  divisions  of  American  troops,  but  he 
immediately  adds  that  fifty  per  cent  of  these  could  be 
returned  within  two  years.  It  would  require  money 
to  open  lines  of  communication,  develop  the  mineral 
resources  of  the  country,  to  put  upon  a  modern  basis 
the  agricultural  operations,  to  build  railroads,  and 
establish  an  educational  system.  Again  referring  to 
General  Harbord,  we  find  that  he  estimates  that  prob- 
ably $800,000,000  would  be  required  for  this  purpose, 
but  at  the  same  time  he  adds  that  this  would  be  paid 
back  with  interest  easily  within  twenty  years. 

America  is  fair  in  religion.  That  was  the  universal 
testimony  by  people  of  all  religions  throughout  the 
Near  East.  Many  of  them  have  carefully  watched  the 
attitude  of  the  missionaries,  and  the  Mohammedans 
say  freely  and  emphatically  that  the  American  mission- 
aries have  never  brought  compulsion  to  bear  in  order 
to  lead  a  student  or  any  one  else  to  change  his  religion. 
It  is  known  among  all  people  there  that  all  religions 
have  equal  rights  in  the  United  States  and  that  a 
mosque  is  as  much  protected  by  the  laws  of  America 


SHALL  THE  LAND  BE  HEALED?  211 

as  is  a  church.  The  Mohammedans  therefore  do  not 
fear  the  incoming  of  an  American  mandatory,  because 
they  know  that  Mohammedanism  would  not  be  coerced 
under  any  form  of  government  that  America  might 
give  them. 

America  believes  in  education.  The  entire  country 
of  the  Near  East  is  woefully  destitute  of  modern  edu- 
cational facilities.  High  Mohammedan  officials  have 
repeatedly  affirmed  that,  had  the  people  of  that  coun- 
try been  thoroughly  educated  according  to  modern 
methods,  there  would  never  have  been  any  Armenian 
atrocities.  This  reveals  the  desire  on  the  part  of  the 
official  Mohammedans  for  a  thorough  system  of  educa- 
tion such  as  America  is  able  to  give.  A  general  school 
system  reaching  all  classes  and  all  nationalities  and  all 
communities  would  be  abundantly  welcomed.  There 
is  no  country  in  the  world  better  able  to  give  this 
than  our  own,  with  its  system  of  education  which  has 
done  so  much  for  us  as  a  nation  and  which  can  do  as 
much  for  these  backward  races,  as  is  illustrated  by 
our  results  in  the  Philippines. 

America  would  not  be  tempted  to  overstay.  She 
has  the  opportunity  to  set  an  unprecedented  example 
before  the  world.  American  experience  in  the 
Philippines  and  in  Cuba  has  commanded  wide  atten- 
tion because  of  its  unselfish,  even  benevolent  spirit  in 
dealing  with  these  island  people.  The  discussions  in 
the  Peace  Conference  have  painfully  revealed  the  at- 
titude of  some  of  the  European  nations  with  reference 
to  conquered  territory.  The  high  ideals  early  promul- 


212  THE  NEAR  EAST 

gated  have  seemed  to  fade  away  as  national  ambition 
for  new  territory  has  gained  the  ascendency.  England 
retains  Mesopotamia,  which  she  had  conquered  at 
great  cost,  hardly  suggesting  that  that,  too,  might  be 
put  upon  the  peace  table  for  final  adjudication,  to- 
gether with  other  conquered  parts  of  the  Turkish 
Empire.  France  has  come  forward  with  almost  a  de- 
mand that  she  have  Syria  and  Cilicia  as  hers  by  right; 
and  so  the  spirit  of  cupidity  and  greed  comes  to  the 
front,  and  even  up  to  this  hour  seems  to  increase  rather 
than  to  diminish.  It  is  the  old  spirit  which  has  been 
dominant  during  the  centuries  and  which,  unless  some- 
thing is  done  now  to  check  it,  may  become  the  only 
basis  for  the  control  of  the  territories  under  considera- 
tion. 

Just  at  this  juncture  there  is  the  possibility  that 
America,  great,  rich,  and  powerful,  may  come  in,  not 
only  with  the  approval  of  many  of  the  European  na- 
tions and  at  the  earnest  desire  and  solicitation  of 
others,  but  at  the  eager  desire  of  the  people  most 
affected.  She  would  in  that  case  assume  the  responsi- 
bility of  organizing  a  government  and  developing  the 
resources  of  these  countries  in  a  way  that  would  be- 
come for  all  time  an  outstanding  example  to  the  entire 
world. 

Here  is  an  opportunity  for  the  United  States  to 
perform  a  piece  of  disinterested  Christian  inter- 
nationalism which  would  go  down  in  history  as  an 
example  of  what  one  great  nation  can  do  for  weak 
and  defenseless  peoples  in  putting  them  on  the  high 


SHALL  THE  LAND  BE  HEALED?       213 

road  to  prosperity  and  self-government.     It  is  an  op- 
portunity which  the  nation  should  covet,  not  avoid. 

The  question  is,  will  the  people  of  America  realize 
the  opportunity  and  accept  the  responsibility?  If 
America  does  not,  so  far  as  we  can  see  not  a  little  of 
the  sacrifice  and  losses  of  the  late  great  war  will  be  of 
no  avail.  The  people  of  the  Near  East  in  the  terri- 
tory above  outlined  will  not  be  put  on  the  way  to  pros- 
perity and  self-government,  but  will  become  the  prey 
of  national  and  international  intrigue,  rivalry,  and 
jealousy  and  will  continue  to  be  a  source  of  strife  and 
conflict. 

Constantinople  the  Capital  of  the  League 

The  Peace  Conference  realized  the  necessity  of  the 
League  of  Nations  having  a  permanent  capital.  It  is 
of  primary  importance  that  that  capital  should  be 
suited  to  the  work  the  League  is  destined  to  perform 
and  the  influence  it  inevitably  must  bear  on  the  entire 
world.  Article  7  of  the  Covenant  of  the  League  of 
Nations  says:  "  The  seat  of  the  League  is  established 
at  Geneva,"  but  adds  that  "  the  Council  may  at  any 
time  decide  that  the  seat  of  the  League  shall  be  estab- 
lished elsewhere."  The  place  selected  for  the  perma- 
nent capital  of  the  League  should  be  central,  strategical, 
easy  of  access,  capable  of  all  necessary  development, 
and  of  a  solubrious  and  inspiring  climate. 

Constantinople  meets  all  of  these  requirements  and 
more.  The  city  and  the  adjacent  area  are  filled  with 
classical  and  historical  interest.  In  beauty  of  location 


214  THE  NEAR  EAST 

it  is  unsurpassed,  lying  at  the  juncture  of  the  Golden 
Horn,  the  Bosphorus,  and  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  and 
rising  directly  from  the  water  upon  a  marvelous  series 
of  picturesque  hills.  The  climate  can  hardly  be  ex- 
celled by  any  city  in  Europe  or  Asia.  Its  close  proxim- 
ity to  water  tempers  its  summer  heat,  while  its  latitude 
and  location  upon  open  water  protect  it  from  extreme 
cold  in  the  winter.  Its  port  is  always  ice  free. 

The  city  is  intercontinental,  lying  at  the  point  where 
Europe  and  Asia  meet,  and  it  is  more  generally 
accessible  from  all  parts  of  the  world  than  any  other 
city.  It  lies  at  the  crossroads  of  the  continents,  over 
which  the  commerce  of  the  nations  passes,  and  it  soon 
will  have  every  facility  of  rail  approach  both  from  the 
entire  continent  of  Europe  as  well  as  from  India, 
Persia,  and  the  East. 

Its  location  is  eminently  fitting  also  because  its 
protected  waters  could  float  the  navies  of  the  world. 
It  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  the  political  and  national 
storm  center  of  Europe  and  Asia.  On  one  side  are 
the  Balkans,  Poland,  Jugo-Slavakia,  and  Czecho- 
slovakia; on  the  east  are  all  the  discordant  elements 
in  Transcaucasia  and  the  old  Turkish  Empire.  These 
are  the  very  areas  which  will  require  for  years,  pos- 
sibly for  generations,  the  direct  attention  of  the 
League.  There  would  be  enormous  advantage  in  hav- 
ing the  capital  city  of  the  League  of  Nations  where  it 
could  exercise  commanding  influence  over  the  forces 
of  disorder  and  unrest  which  still  threaten  to  disturb 
the  present  equilibrium. 


SHALL  THE  LAND  BE  HEALED?  215 

If  Constantinople  should  be  thus  taken  as  the  capital, 
it  would  solve  forever  the  question  of  the  Turk-in- 
Europe  and  the  future  occupation  of  Constantinople, 
as  well  as  the  free  waterways  from  the  Black  Sea  to 
the  ^Egean.  This  area  would  then  become  distinctly 
and  emphatically  international  under  the  control  of  the 
League.  The  "  Constantinople  question,"  which  has 
agitated  Europe  for  so  many  decades,  would  be  for- 
ever settled.  The  League  of  Nations  would  thus  be 
amenable  to  and  responsible  to  no  government  but  its 
own,  and  wholly  free  from  any  local  or  national 
restraints. 

These  are  conditions  which  cannot  be  assured  if  the 
League  is  located .  elsewhere,  and  yet  they  are  condi- 
tions which  are  essential  to  its  most  successful  opera- 
tion. 

Effect  of  Mandatory  on  Work  of  Missions 

Hitherto,  throughout  the  entire  country  concerned, 
except  Russia,  missionary  work  has  been  carried  on 
with  a  considerable  degree  of  opposition  from  the 
Turkish  Government,  but  also  with  a  large  degree  of 
liberty.  Missionaries  do  not  anywhere  advocate  politi- 
cal changes  in  order  to  make  this  work  easier.  But  in 
the  name  of  justice  and  humanity  they  ask  for  such 
political  readjustments  as  shall  bring  safety  to  life  and 
property,  and  liberty  of  belief  and  worship,  to  all 
classes  in  the  country. 

What  would  be  the  effect  of  establishing  an  Ameri- 
can mandatory  over  the  four  areas  outlined  above; 


216  THE  NEAR  EAST! 

namely,     Constantinople,     Anatolia,     Armenia,     and 
Syria  ? 

1.  It  would  remove  the  awful  incubus  of  fear  which 
for  centuries  has  rested  like  a  pall  upon  all  classes  of 
the  population. 

2.  Industrially  and  commercially  the  country  would 
be  made  over.  Chronic  stagnation  now  marks  the  state 
of  everything  which  would  promote  these  interests  in 
any  part  of  the  country. 

3.  Adequate  protection  and  the  encouragement  of 
new    industrial   and    commercial    enterprises    would, 
from  the  beginning,  give  to  the  entire  country,  in  the 
place  of  widespread  fear  and  general  poverty,  a  spirit 
of  content  and  of  hopeful  anticipation.    Capital  would 
flow  in,  and  the  inhabitants  of  every  class  and  race 
would  be  buoyed  up  by  a  new  hope  and  a  sense  of 
security. 

4.  Religious  liberty  would  be  guaranteed.     Hith- 
erto the  Turkish  Government  has  given  a  fair  degree 
of  religious  liberty — so  far  as  liberty  to  worship  is 
concerned — to  the  Christian  nations  in  the  Empire. 
But  there  has  been  no  liberty  for  a  Moslem  to  change 
his  religion.     While,  under  pressure   from   Europe, 
the  death  penalty  has  not  been  openly  visited  upon 
converted  Moslems  for  more  than  a  half  century,  still 
it  is  understood  that  to  kill  a  Mohammedan  who  has 
become  a  Christian  is  not  a  crime.     A  decree  to  this 
effect  was  issued  during  the  closing  months  of  1919. 
This  made  it  impossible  to  present  openly  to  Moslems 
in  Turkey  the  gospel  of  Christ  or  to  plan  openly  for 


SHALL  THE  LAND  BE  HEALED?  217 

Christian  work  among  them.  Thus  the  Kurds,  the 
Tartars,  the  Turks,  and  the  Arabs  have  hardly  been  in 
the  field  of  direct  Christian  approach. 

5.  Education  would  become  general.    Illiteracy  has 
been  widespread,  in  spite  of  all  that  missionaries  have 
done  in  establishing  schools.    The  Kurds,  the  Tartars, 
and   the   Arabs   have   been  hardly   touched   by   any 
modern  educational  movements,  and  the  Turks  have 
been  but  little  in  advance  of  them.     At  the  present 
time  there  is  a  widespread  desire  among  the  Turks 
and  Arabs  for  better  modern  education.    This  would 
strike  at  the  very  source  of  the  superstitions  of  all  the 
Moslem  populations  and  prepare  the  way  for  the  recep- 
tion of  religious  truth.    The  scientific  methods  taught 
in  the  schools  would  put  religious  thinking  upon  a 
safer  foundation. 

6.  A  common-school  system  recognizing  the  domi- 
nance of  no  race  or  creed,  and  a  system  of  govern- 
ment that  treated  all  nationalities  alike,  would  in  itself 
be  a  mighty  transforming  social  agency.     This  has 
been  already  done,  to  a  limited  degree,  in  the  mis- 
sionary schools.     It  would  necessarily  develop  a  new 
social  consciousness  of  enormous  benefit  in  lifting  the 
entire  social  fabric  of  the  Near  East. 

7.  New  resources  in  the  country  would  make  prob- 
able the  early  self-support  of  missionary  institutions. 
Before  the  war  the  Armenians,  in  spite  of  the  low  in- 
dustrial state  of  the  country,  had  shown  a  readiness 
and  capacity  to  support,  to  a  most  commendable  de- 
gree, religious  and  educational  enterprises  among  them. 


218  THE  NEAR  EAST 

There  is  no  reason  why,  with  national  good  order  and 
successful  development  of  the  local  industries  and 
foreign  comerce,  all  the  educational,  medical,  and  liter- 
ary operations  should  not  become  speedily  self-sup- 
porting; all  except  the  pioneer  enterprise  in  evangel- 
istic work. 

Missionary  work  would  not  be  primarily  financial, 
but  rather  an  endeavor  to  build  up  among  the  people  of 
all  races  and  religions  modern  institutions  of  piety, 
charity,  and  education,  speedily  to  become  self-sup- 
porting, self-governing,  and  self-propagating.  The 
predominance  of  the  missionaries  would  soon  yield  to 
the  supremacy  of  educated  natives,  who,  moved  by  the 
true  Christian  spirit,  would  be  ready  to  devote  them- 
selves to  the  welfare  of  their  people.  The  aim  of  the 
missionaries  would  thus  become  more  and  more  to 
supervise  the  training  of  the  men  and  women  who 
would  become  the  true  reformers  of  the  land. 

8.  Large  numbers  of  Armenian,  Syrian,  and  Greek 
students  from  Turkey  have  come  to  the  United  States 
to  complete  their  studies.  Some  returned  as  teachers 
and  workers,  but  many  were  kept  from  going  back 
from  fear  of  Turkish  misrule.  Under  a  democratic 
regime,  the  numbers  coming  to  this  country  for  special 
studies  in  academic,  religious,  social,  industrial,  and 
commercial  subjects  would  necessarily  be  increased, 
while  the  proportion  of  those  returning  would  be 
greatly  multiplied.  Through  this  interchange  and 
commingling  of  the  brightest  and  most  enterprising 
men  and  women  of  the  Near  East  with  the  West,  we 


SHALL  THE  LAND  BE  HEALED?  219 

should  have  reason  to  anticipate  a  rapid  development 
of  native  religious,  moral,  social,  and  intellectual  re- 
sources for  the  normal  and  balanced  development  of 
the  country. 

In  the  Caucasus,  owing  to  the  prohibitions  hitherto 
put  by  the  Russian  Government  upon  all  missionary 
operations,  beginnings  would  be  more  primitive,  but 
even  there  the  general  trend  of  development  among 
the  more  primitive  Georgians  and  Tartars  would  be 
along  similar  lines.  Missions  have  nothing  to  fear 
from  the  new  development  in  Turkey,  even  though 
Syria  and  Cilicia  are  put  under  a  French  mandatory. 
While  the  French  are  inclined  to  fear  American  mis- 
sionaries and  educators  as  political  agents,  they  can 
undoubtedly  be  made  to  understand  the  unsoundness 
of  the  charge. 

Whatever  takes  place,  the  Near  East  will  never 
again  become  what  it  was  before  1914.  The  crust 
of  its  seclusion  has  been  broken  through,  and  races 
dwelling  there  are  beginning  to  think  in  new  terms  of 
liberty  and  independence.  We  of  the  West  have  a 
responsibility  to  see  that  the  liberty  to  which  they 
aspire  be  the  liberty  of  righteousness,  and  their  inde- 
pendence that  of  right  thinking  and  right  being. 
America  already  holds  the  moral  and  intellectual  man- 
datory of  the  Near  East,  and  we  should  not  shrink 
from  assuming  the  political  mandatory  as  well. 


220  THE  NEAR  EAST 

The  Church's  Responsibility 

Whether  the  United  States  shall  exercise  the  man- 
date, or  England,  or  France,  or  the  Allies  acting  to- 
gether, the  chief  elements  of  the  case  remain.  There 
are  50,000,000  people  in  the  Near  East.  They  are 
destined  to  remain  there  under  whatever  rule.  Mil- 
lions are  miserably  poor  and  sick.  Most  of  them  are 
ignorant.  They  are  harboring  fears  and  hatreds  due 
to  age-long  persecutions  and  violence.  Their  indus- 
trial and  agricultural  inadequacy  show  lack  both  of 
equipment  and  of  knowledge.  To  them  the  conditions 
spell  immediate  and  critical  need.  To  us  more  favored 
Christians  the  conditions  spell  opportunity  and  obliga- 
tion. Their  need  makes  imperative  challenge  because 
all  seclusion  of  even  remoter  parts  of  the  Near  East 
has  been  permanently  broken  in,  the  Republics  of 
Georgia  and  Azerbaijan  will  now  welcome  Christian 
missions,  and  Prince  Feisal  begs  that  we  start  schools 
in  Mecca,  even  Mecca.  The  Turks,  seeing  the  won- 
derful show  of  humanity  by  the  American  Red  Cross 
and  the  Near  East  Relief,  have  finally  said  in  explana- 
tion, "  It  must  be  their  religion."  They  too  will  gen- 
erally be  hospitable  to  mission  schools. 

Here,  then,  is  a  complex  of  races  and  peoples  quite 
spent  and  receptive,  in  a  place  geographically  of 
strategic  importance,  in  a  region  of  varied  produc- 
tivity, and  of  native  gifts  justifying  generous  hopes. 

The  case  calls  for  the  Church's  immediate  and  gener- 
ous response.  Time  is  an  element  in  a  fair  answer. 


SHALL  THE  LAND  BE  HEALED?  221 

The  time  we  take  and  the  good  we  may  do  are  in 
inverse  ratio.  As  we  lessen  the  time  till  our  going, 
we  greaten  the  measure  of  our  service. 

Boards  now  working  in  the  Near  East  have  made 
t.heir  survey  and  see  the  need  of  475  new  missionaries 
in  addition  to  the  394  already  there.  The  Church's 
first  generosity  in  money — and  money  is  more  easily 
raised — must  be  matched  by  the  gift  of  strong  young 
lives,  without  which  the  money  is  inert  and  profitless. 
Redemption  of  Bible  lands  awaits  the  help  of  lands 
that  have  the  Bible.  Religious  sentiment,  humanity, 
and  missionary  strategy,  all  will  be  served  by  the 
Church's  prompt  and  generous  answer  to  the  call  of 
the  Near  East.  The  Near  East  was  never  so  near. 

January,  1920. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


GENERAL 

Egan,  Eleanor  Franklin,  War  in  the  Cradle  of  the  World,  Meso- 
potamia. 1918.  Harper  &  Brothers,  New  York. 

Gibbons,  H.  A.,  The  Reconstruction  of  Poland  and  the  Near 
East;  Problems  of  Peace.  1917.  Century  Co.,  New  York. 

Levine,  I.  D.,  The  Resurrected  Nations.  1919.  Frederick  A. 
Stokes  Co.,  New  York. 

Mathews,  Basil,  The  Riddle  of  Nearer  Asia.  1918.  George  H. 
Doran  Co.,  New  York. 

Moore,  B.  B.,  From  Moscow  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  1915.  G.  P. 
Putnam's  Sons,  New  York. 

Patton,  Cornelius  H.,  The  Lure  of  Africa.  1917.  Interchurch 
Press,  New  York. 

Ramsey,  W.  M.,   The  Intermixture   of  Races  in  Asia  Minor. 

1917.    Milford. 
Rihbany,  A.  M.,  America  Save  the  Near  East.     1918.     Beacon 

Press,  Boston. 

Roosevelt,  Kermit,  War  in  the  Garden  of  Eden.  1919.  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons,  New  York. 

Whitman,  S.,  Turkish  Memories.  1914.  Charles  Scribner's  Sons, 
New  York. 

Zwemer,  Samuel  M.,  Islam:  A  Challenge  to  Faith.  1907.  Stu- 
dent Volunteer  Movement,  New  York. 

Zwemer,  Samuel  M.,  and  Brown,  Arthur  J.,  The  Nearer  and 
Farther  East.  1908.  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York. 

POLITICAL 

Benson,  E.  F.,  Crescent  and  Iron  Cross.    1918.    George  H.  Doran 

Co.,  New  York. 
Eversley,  Lord.     The  Turkish  Empire:  Its  Growth  and  Decay. 

1917.    Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.,  New  York. 
Gibbons,  H.  A.,  The  New  Map  of  Asia.     1919.     Century  Co., 

New  York. 
Hall,  William  H.,  Reconstruction  in  Turkey.     1918.     Series  of 

reports  compiled  for  the  American  Committee  for  Armenian 

and  Syrian  Relief. 

222 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  223 

Jastrow,  M.,  The  War  and  the  Bagdad  Railway.     1918.     J.  B. 

Lippincott  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Morgenthau,    Henry,    Ambassador   Morgenthau's   Story.      1918. 

Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  Garden  City,  N.  Y. 
Savic,  V.  R.,  South-eastern  Europe:  the  Main  Problem  of  the 

Present  World-Struggle.     1918.     Fleming  H.  Revell  Co.,  New 

York. 

Sidebotham,  Herbert,  England  and  Palestine.     1917.     Constable, 
London. 

Woods,  H.  C,  The  Cradle  of  the  War,  the  Near  East  and  Pan- 
Germanism.     1918.     Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  Boston. 

COUNTRIES 


ARABIA 

Doughty,   Charles   M.,    Wanderings  in  Arabia.     1908.     Charles 

Scribner's  Sons,  New  York. 
Hurgronje,  C.  S.,  The  Revolt  in  Arabia.    1917.    G.  P.  Putnam's 

Sons,  New  York. 

ARMENIA 

Asian,  Kevork,  Armenia  and  the  Armenians.     1919.     Macmillan 

Co.,  New  York. 
Gabrielian,  M.  C.,  Armenia,  a  Martyr  Nation.    1918.    Fleming  H. 

Revell  Co.,  New  York. 
Ormanian,    M.,    The    Church    of    Armenia.      1912.      Mowbray, 

London. 

Papazian,  B.  S.,  The  Tragedy  of  Armenia.    1918.    Pilgrim  Press, 
Boston. 

ASIA    MINOR 

Childs,  W.  J.,  Across  Asia  Minor  on  Foot.     1917.    Dodd,  Mead 

&  Co.,  New  York. 
Curtis,  William  E.,  Around  the  Black  Sea.     1917.     George  H. 

Doran  Co.,  New  York. 
Hawley,  Walter  A.,  Asia  Minor.     1918.     John  Lane  Co.,  New 

York. 

CON  STA  NTI NOPLE 

Dwight,  Henry  O.,  Constantinople,  Old  and  New.    1915.    Charles 

Scribner's  Sons,  New  York. 
Stamboul  Nights.     1916.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co,  Garden 

City,  N.  Y. 


224  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Pears,  Sir  Edwin,  Forty  Years  in  Constantinople.    1916. 

Washburn,  George.,  Fifty  Years  in  Constantinople.  1910. 
Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston. 

EGYPT 
Cromer,  Lord,  Modern  Egypt.    1916.    Macmillan  Co.,  New  York. 

Lane-Poole,  Stanley,  Story  of  Cairo.  E.  P.  Button  Co.,  New 
York. 

Watson,  C.  R.,  In  the  Valley  of  the  Nile.  1908.  Fleming  H. 
Revell  Co.,  New  York. 

KURDISTAN 

Wigram,  W.  A.,  and  Wigram,  E.  T.  A.,  The  Cradle  of  Mankind. 
1914.  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York. 

PALESTINE 

Bentwich,  N.,  Palestine  of  the  Jews,  Past,  Present  and  Future. 

1919.     Paul,  London. 
Finley,  John  H.,  A  Pilgrim  in  Palestine.     1919.    Charles  Scrib- 

ner's  Sons,  New  York. 

Hyamson,  A.  M.,  Palestine,  the  Rebirth  of  an  Ancient  People. 
1917.  Alfred  A.  Knopf,  New  York. 

Jastrow,  M.,  Zionism  and  the  Future  of  Palestine.  1919.  Mac- 
millan Co.,  New  York. 

PERSIA 

Shahbaz,  Yonan  H.,  The  Rage  of  Islam.  1918.  American  Bap- 
tist Publication  Society,  Philadelphia. 

Shuster,  W.  M.,  The  Strangling  of  Persia.  1912.  Century  Co., 
New  York. 

Sykes,  Lieutenant-Colonel  P.  M.,  A  History  of  Persia.  1915. 
Macmillan  Co.,  New  York. 


Smith,  Sir  G.  A.,  Syria  and  the  Holy  Land.  1918.  Hodder  & 
Stoughton,  London. 

TURKEY 

Brown,  Philip  M.,  Foreigners  in  Turkey.  1914.  Princeton  Uni- 
versity Press,  Princeton,  N.  J. 

Gibbons,  Herbert,  Foundations  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  1916. 
Century  Co.,  New  York. 

Wilson,  Elizabeth,  The  Road  Ahead:  Experiences  in  the  Life  of 
Frances  C.  Gage.  1918.  The  Womans  Press,  New  York. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  225 

RELIGIONS 

Adeney,  W.  K,  The  Greek  and  Eastern  Churches.  1908.  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons,  New  York. 

Barton,  James  L.,  Christian  Approach  to  Islam.  1918.  Pilgrim 
Press,  Boston. 

Bliss,  Frederick  Jones,  The  Religions  of  Modern  Syria  and  Pal- 
estine. 1912.  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York. 

MacDonald,  D.  B.,  Aspects  of  Islam.  1911.  Macmillan  Co., 
New  York. 

Zwemer,  S.  M.,  editor,  The  Vital  Forces  of  Christianity  and 
Islam.  1918.  Humphrey  Mil  ford,  London. 

MISSIONARY 

Barrows,  J.  A.,  In  the  Land  of  Ararat.  Sketch  of  the  life  of 
Mrs.  Elizabeth  Freeman  Barrows  Ussher  of  Turkey.  1916. 
Fleming  H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York. 

Barton,  James  L.,  Daybreak  in  Turkey.  1908.  Pilgrim  Press, 
Boston. 

Gibbons,  Helen  D.,  The  Red  Rugs  of  Tarsus.  1917.  Century 
Co.,  New  York.  t 

Greene,  J.  K.,  Leavening  the  Levant.  1916.  Pilgrim  Press, 
Boston. 

Jessup,  Henry  Harris,  Fifty-three  Years  in  Syria.  1910.  Flem- 
ing H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York. 

Rice,  Clara  C,  Mary  Bird  of  Persia.  1916.  Church  Missionary 
Society,  London. 

Ussher,  Clarence  D.  and  Knapp,  Grace  H.,  An  American  Physi- 
cian in  Turkey.  1917.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston. 

Zwemer,  Samuel  M.,  Arabia,  the  Cradle  of  Islam.  1900.  Flem- 
ing H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York. 

Meshed  Medical  Mission  Stories.  Presbyterian  Board  of  Publi- 
cation, Philadelphia. 

FICTION 

Carhart,  Alfreda  Post,  Masoud  the  Bedouin.    1915.    Interchurch 

Press,  New  York. 
Dwight,  Henry  Otis,  A   Muslim  Sir  Galahad.     1913.     Fleming 

H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York. 
Holmes,   Mary  Caroline,    Who  Follows  in  Their  Train.     1917. 

Fleming  H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York. 
The  Knock  on  the  Door.     1918.     Fleming  H.  Revell  Co., 

New  York. 


INDEX 


Abbas  Effendi,  66 

Abdul  Hamid,  17-18,  19,  54 

Aden,  missions  at,   129 

Africa,    projected   railroad   into,    179 

Agricultural   resources,   91-93,    173 

Aintab,   Central    Turkey    College   at, 

1 60 
Allenby,    General,   entrance   of,    into 

Jerusalem    3-6;     varied     races     in 

army  of,  4;  railway,  pipe-line,  and 

highway   constructed    by,    5;    men- 
tioned,   185,    187 
America,     desire    of     Near    Eastern 

races  for,  as  Mandatory,  167,  206- 

207;    opportunity    of,    207-213 
"  American     Board,"    pioneer    work 

of,    117 

American     Board    of    Foreign    Mis- 
sions,   158,    159 
American    Committee    for    Relief    in 

Near   East,    187 
American    Mission    Press   in   Beirut, 

1 16 
American    mission    of    Urumia,    83, 

119.     i35-!36;    refugees    protected 

in,    186-187 

American  Red   Cross,   187 
American     Red     Cross    Commission, 

184-185 

American  schools,   157-163 
Anatolia,  disposal  of  area  uncertain, 

199 

Anatolia   College,    160 
Anglo-Persian   Oil   Company,  British 

interest  in,  9 
Arabia,    Turkish    control    in,    14-15; 

new     kingdom     of,      15-16,      198; 

horses    of,    93-94;    effect    of    war 

upon,    128 
Arabs,  national  spirit  among,   14-15; 

new  kingdom  of,  led  by  Lawrence, 

16;    racial    characteristics,    40-42; 

present   harmony   between   Syrians 

and,   198 
Armenia-in- Russia,   new  republic  of, 

198 
Armenia-in-Turkey,  new  republic  of, 

198 

Armenian   Evangelical   Church,  70 
Armenian  National  Church,  70 


226 


Armenian   Republic,   197,   198 
Armenian    Roman    Catholic    Church, 

A  7°     • 

Armenians,    33-35,    133;    persecution 

of,  by  Turks,  51-55,  71-72 

Armenian   schools,    145-146 

Armenian  troops  4,   12 

Asia  Minor,  first  missionaries  sent 
to,  1 18 

Assassins,  Mohammedan  order  of,  65 

Assiut,  Christian  institutions  in,  129 

Assyrian    Church,    70 

Australians  in  British  army  in  Pales- 
tine, ^ 

Azerbaijan  Republic,   197 

B 

Baal   Worship,   76 

Baghdad,  capture  of,  by  British,  10- 
1 1 

Bahai,  Mohammedan  sect  of  the,  66 

Bahrien,  missions  at,   129 

Barton,  Dr.  James  L.,  quoted,  123- 
124 

Basra,   British    forces  in,   10 

Barrat,  missions  at,  129 

Beirut,  Christian  institutions  in, 
115-116,  129,  132;  Syrian  Protes- 
tant College  at,  158,  167 

Bible,  translation  of  the,  132 

Bliss,    Dr.    Daniel,    159,    167 

Bliss,   Dr.   Howard,   167 

Breslau,  German  crusier  in  Turkish 
waters,  16 

British  army,  advance  of,  into  Pales- 
tine, 3-8;  varied  troops  in,  4; 
Baghdad  captured  by,  10;  troops 
sent  to  protect  Persian  refugees, 
12 

British  schools,   157 

C 

Cairo,  Christian  institutions  in,  129, 

132 

Camels,  93-94 
Cattle,  94 
Caucasus,  advance  of  Turkish  army 

into  the,    1 1 

Central  Turkey  College,  160 
Central   Turkey   Girls'    College,    160 


INDEX 


227 


Charms,  common  use  of,   75 

Children,  future  opportunity  for 
work  among,  185-186 

Cholera,   spread   of,    181-184 

Christianity,  influence  of,  on  Islam, 
81;  challenge  of  Near  East  to,  188- 
190 

Christians,  ancient  sects  of,  68; 
counteracting  influences  upon 
Eastern,  79-80;  persecution  of,  51- 
S5.  7I-72 

Church,  the  Eastern,  68-71,  78-80; 
early  councils  of,  69;  counteract- 
ing influences  upon,  79-80;  estab- 
lishment of  Protestant,  131;  pres- 
ent opportunity  of,  191;  responsi- 
bility of,  220 

Church  membership,  Oriental,   126 

Church  Missionary  Society  of  the 
Church  of  England,  83 

Church  school,  the,   143-144 

Citizenship,  rights  and  privileges  of, 
through  the  Church,  79-80,  124 

Coal,    109 

Colleges,  established  by  missionary 
enterprise,  131,  158-160 

Commercial  expansion,  possibilities 
of,  172-173,  191-192 

Constantinople,  Bible  House  of,  129, 
132,  Robert  College  in,  159;  as 
League  of  Nations'  capital,  171, 
199-200,  213-215;  political  impor- 
tance of  location,  176 

Constantinople  College  for  Women, 
159 

Convents  on  Lebanon  Mountains,  77, 
124 

Copper,    12,    109 

Copts,  the,  50,  70,  120 

Cuba,  America's  help  to,  cited,  191 

D 

"  Danger    Zone    of    Europe,"    Near 

East  as  the,  181 
Deportations,   in    Syria,   51 -SSI   Mor- 

genthau's  account  of,  cited,   186 
Disease,  spread  of,  in  Moslem  lands, 

181-184 

District  Nurses,  need  for,  184 
D'jemal   Pasha,  7,  20-21 
Dodd,   Dr.  W.  S.,  quoted,   i; 
Donkeys,  94 
Druses,    Mohammedan    sect    of    the, 

66-67 
Dwight,  H.   G.   A.,   117-118 


Eastern  Church,  counteracting  in- 
fluences upon,  79-80;  contact  of 
missions  with,  122-125 

Edinburgh  Missionary  Conference, 
174 


134 


Education,  142  ff;  in  Syria,  101; 
problems  in,  163-166;  need  for 
sanitary,  184-185;  need  for  ad- 
vancement in,  191-192 

Egypt,  as  military  base,  6-8;  develop- 
ment of  modern,  8-9;  home  life 
in,  05-98;  railroads  in,  104-105; 
fertility  of,  106;  first  missionaries 
sent  to,  118,  119;  schools  in,  151- 
'S2,  157;  political  importance  of, 
»75»  179;  missionary  importance 
of,  179-180;  not  ready  tor  self- 
government,  20 1 -202 

Egyptians,  in  British  army  in  Pales- 
tine, 4;  national  characteristics  of, 
49-51 

Emery,    109 

England,  question  of,  as  Mandatory, 
203-204 

English    Palestine    Relief   Fund,    187 

Enver    Pasha,    20-21;    quoted,   30 

Euphrates  College  at  Harpoot,  160 

Evangelical  church  first  organized, 
121 

"  Evil  Eye,"  power  of  belief  in  the, 
74-75 


Famine,  in  war  time,  54-55,   186 

Feisal,  Emir,  nationalistic  movement 
in  Syria  under,  15;  quoted  con- 
cerning Syrian  Protestant  College, 
167;  mentioned,  220 

Ftsk,  Pliny,  116-117 

Flax,    109 

French  schools,  51,  153;  seized  by 
Turkish  government,  83 

French    troops    in    British 
Palestine,    4 

Fruit,  abundance  of,  107,  108,  109 


army    in 


Garbage   disposal,    181-182 

Georgian   Republic,  197 

German  schools,  154 

Goats,  93-94 

God,  common  use  of  name  of,  73, 
74;  belief  in  nearness  of,  76 

Goeben,  German  cruiser  in  Turkish 
waters,  1 6 

Gold,  109 

Goodell,   Dr.,  quoted,   123 

Grain,   abundance  of,    106,   107,  108 

Grant,   Dr.  and   Mrs.,   119 

Greek  Orthodox  Church,  70,  177; 
customs  and  rites  of,  a  hindrance 
to  reform,  126 

Greeks,  the,  36-37;  persecution  of, 
by  Turks,  52-55,  71-72 

Greek   schools,    146-147 

Gurkhas  in  British  army  in  Pales- 
tine, 4 


228 


INDEX 


H 

"  Hajj,"    significance    of,    as    prefix, 

174 

Handicraft,  individual,  89-91 
Harpoot,    Euphrates   College   in,    160 
Health,  See  Public  Health 
Hedjaz,  kingdom   of  the,    14-15,   128 
Highways,  See  Roads 
Holy    Land,   tourists   to   the,    174 
"Holy    War,"   "Jehad"    proclaimed 

by  Sultan,  25 
Home   life,    in    Moslem   city,    95-97; 

in      peasant      village,      98-99;      in 

Lebanon     mountains,     99-101;     of 

mission  pastor,  101-103 
Horses,   Arabian,   93-94 
Hospitals,  131 
Hussein,       appointed      Khedive      of 

Egypt,  7 

I 

Ibrahim  Pasha,  6 

Ignorance,     effect     of,     on     Eastern 

churches,  79 

Illiteracy   among   Turks,    145 
Industrialism,    problems    of    modern 

I  I  1-112 

Industrial   readjustment,    191-192 
Industry,    local    and    individual,    89- 

9't   95!   reorganization  of,   due  to 

war,   110-112 

International  College  at  Smyrna,  160 
Iron,    109 
Irrigation,  92-93 
Islam.      See    Mohammedanism 
Italians  in  British  army  in  Palestine, 

4 

J 

"  Janizaries,"   the,    185 
"  Jehad,"   See   "  Holy   War  " 
Jerusalem,  entrance  into,  by  Allenby, 
3;   return   of  Jews  to,  44;   World 
Sunday  School  Convention  in,  173- 
174 
Jesuit-French  missions,   70,  83,    153- 


154 
Jewish    legion 


in    British 

fc 

religion   of,  62-6,, 
"  Jews'   Wailing  Place,"  44 
Jowett,  Mr.,  117 


Palestine,  „ 
Jews,    reestablishment   of,    5 


army    in 
43-46; 


K 

Kavah,  leather  apron  of,  48 
Khalid,   Moslem   leader  quoted,  48 
Kingdom  of  the  Hedjaz,  the,   14-15, 

128 

Kurd_s,  the,  12,  14,  37-40,  94 
Kur-i-Nuh,       "  the       Mountain      of 

Noah,"  29 
Kut-el-Amara,  Turkish  victory  at,  10 


Laboratories,  need  for  research,   184 
Lawrence,  Thomas,   Arabians  led  to 

victory  by,  16 
Lead,    1 09 
League  of  Nations,  Covenant  quoted, 

202-203,  213 

M 

Mandatory,  question  of,  191,  202- 
203;  who  should  accept,  203-207 

Manganese,  109 

Manufacture,  primitive  methods  of, 
88-91,  95 

Marash,  Central  Turkey  Girls'  Col- 
lege at,  1 60 

Markets,  unsanitary  condition  of, 
182 

Maron,  leader  of  a  Christian  sect, 
7« 

Maronites,  the,  71 

Marshall,  General,  in  Mesopotamia, 
1 1 

Marsovan,   Anatolia   College   in,    160 

Martyn,  Henry,  117 

Massacres,    52-55,    186 

Maude,  General,  in  Mesopotamia, 
10;  death  of,  n 

Mercury,  109 

Meshed  Hospital,  opportunity  for 
mission  work  in,  17-9 

Mesopotamia,  Allenby's  campaign  in, 
5-6;  British  advance  in,  10-11;  de- 
velopment of  natural  resources  in, 
ii ;  irrigation  in,  93;  horses  of, 
94;  natural  resources  of,  107-109, 
no;  new  industrial  conditions  in, 
in,  128;  England's  desire  for, 
212 

Mineral  wealth,  109-110;  develop- 
ment of,  173 

Missionaries,  American,  in  Urumia, 
14 

Mission  pastor,  home  life  of,  101-103 

Mjssion  schools,   154-157,  160-161 

Mission  work,  pioneer  days  of,  117- 
120;  periods  of  development,  120- 
122;  contact  with  Eastern  Christi- 
anity, 122-125;  achievements,  126; 
contact  with  Mohammedanism, 
127-134,  180-181;  modern  aim  of, 
129-130;  results  of,  among  Mo- 
hammedans, 130-133;  in  education, 
154-161;  opportunity  for,  among 
tourists  and  pilgrims,  175;  Near 
East,  the  strategic  center  for,  176; 
need  for,  in  Russia,  177,  in 
Western  Asia,  178,  in  Meshed, 
179;  sanitation  and,  185;  effect 
on,  if  America  accepts  Mandatory, 
215-219 

Mohammed,   15;  quoted,  65 

Mohammedanism,  63-68,  71;  religious 
and  political  power  of,  25,  79-80; 


INDEX 


229 


sects  of,  65-67;  religious  duties 
of,  67-68;  Christianity's  influence 
upon,  81 ;  missionary  contact  with 
127-134,  180-181;  effect  of  war 
upon,  128-129;  political  power  dis- 
rupted, 134 
Monasteries  on  Lebanon  Mountains, 

77.    I24 
Morgenthau,     Henry,     quoted,     31; 

cited,    186 

Moslem.      See    Mohammedanism 
Moslem  force  in  time  of  war,  51 
Moslem  house,   visit   to  a,   95-97 
Moslem  shrines,   pilgrims  visit,    174- 

175.   179 

Moslem  University,  the,   143 
Mosque  school,    141-142 
Mosul,  1 1 

N 

Natural  resources,  development  of, 
n,  173;  of  Egypt,  1 06;  of  Persia, 

107,  109,    no;    of    Turkey,    107- 

108,  109,   no 

Near  East,  ancient  hatreds  and  rival- 
ries in,  57,  196;  traveling  in,  104- 
1 06;  importance  of  early  trade, 
172;  political  importance  of,  175; 
need  for  reform  in,  191-192 

Near    East    Relief,    10 

JVestorians,  the,   70,   119 

New  Zealanders  in  British  army  in 
Palestine,  4 

Nile  valley,  fertility  of,   106 

Nusariyeh,  Mohammedan  sect  of  the, 
66 


Oil-wells,  Persian,  5,  9-10,  12,  no 
Othman,  "  Janizaries  "  organized  by, 
185 


Palestine,  advance  of  British  forces 
into,  3-8;  reestablishment  of  Jew- 
ish state  in,  46;  roads  in,  104; 
first  missionaries  sent  to,  118 

Parsons,  Levi,  116-117 

Pastoral   Life,   93-94 

Pathans  in  British  army  in  Pales- 
tine, 4 

Peasant  village,  home  life  in,  98, 
100-104 

Perkins,   Rev.  and   Mrs.   Justin,    119 

Persecution  of  Christians,  51-55,  71- 
72 

Persia,  German  and  Turkish  agents 
in,  10;  Turkish  and  German  vic- 
tories in,  12;  William  M.  Shuster 
in,  13;  loss  of  vigor  in,  13-14; 
railways  and  post-offices  in,  14; 
rug  making  in,  87-89:  fertility  of, 
107;  first  missionary  work  in,  119; 


schools  in.  149-151,  155-157;  politi- 
cal   importance  of,    175-176 

Persians,   the,  47-49 

Petroleum,    5,   9-10,    12,    no 

Philippines,  America's  occupation  of, 
cited,  191 

Pilgrims,     religious,     173-175,     179; 

spread  of  disease  by,   182-184 
'P'illar   Saints,"   68-69 

Pipe-line  laid  by  Allenby  across  the 
desert,  5;  threatened  by  Turks,  n, 
1 10 

Plague,   spread  of,    181-184 

Political  importance  of  Near  East, 
175 

Political  reorganization,  need  for, 
191-192 

Politics,  close  relation  of,  to  re- 
ligion, 79-80,  124 

Protestant  church,  the,  125,  131,  191, 
220 

Public  health,    181-184 


Railways,   5,   14,    15,    104-106,    179 

Raratongans  in  British  army  in 
Palestine,  4 

Reconstruction,  loss  of  Christians  to, 
71-72;  problems  of,  95,  134-135; 
brought  about  by  war,  110-112; 
need  for,  185-186 

Red  Cross,  American,  187 

Refugees,  Persian,  protected  by  Brit- 
ish troops,  12;  in  American  mis- 
sion at  Uramia,  186-187 

Relief  Work,   185-186,   187-188,  189 

Religion,  relation  of,  to  life  in  Near 
East,  61-63;  close  relation  of,  to 
politics,  79-80.  124 

Religious    ceremonies,    74-75 

Religious  education,  problem  of  how 
to  promote,  164-166 

Religious  temperament  of  people,  72- 

Richard  of  the  Lion  Heart,  37 
Roads,  5,    104,    106 
Robert   College,    Constantinople,    159 
Rossevelt,  Theodore,  quoted,  9 
Round  Table,  The.  quoted,  176 
Rug  making,   88-89 
Russia,      work     for     the     Christian 
church  in,  177 


Said  Pasha,  120 

St.  Paul's  College  at  Tarsus,  160 
Saladin,  38 
Salt,  1 09 

Sanitation,  need  for,    181-184 
Sanitary   education,    184-185 
Schools,    131,    141    ft".:    increased   ex- 
pense  of   maintaining,    165-166 
Self-government  in  Near  East,  200 


230 


INDEX 


Sewers  and  drains,   181-182 

Shedd,  Dr.  William  A.,  136-138; 
Mrs.  W.  A.,  quoted  on  mission 
schools,  155-157 

Sheep,    93-94 

Sherif  of  Mecca,  proclaimed  King 
of  the  Hedjaz,  15 

Shi'ahs,  the,  65 

Shrines,  pilgrims  visit,   173-175,    179 

Shuster,  William  M.,  reorganization 
in  Persia,  by,  10,  13 

Sikhs  in  British  Army  in  Palestine, 
4 

Silk  culture,  109 

Silver,   109 

Simon  Stylites,  68-69 

Sivas,  Teachers  College  at,   160 

Smallpox,  spread  of,  181-184 

Smith,  Eli,   117-118 

Smyrna,  International  College  at, 
1 60 

Social  conditions,  changed  by  war, 
1 1 1-112;  effect  of  European  ideas 
upon,  133;  need  for  transforma- 
tion of,  191-192 

Society  of  Friends,  83 

Sudanese  in  British  army  in  Pales- 
tine, 4 

Sultan  of  Turkey,   15 

Sunnis,  the,  65 

Superstitious,   73-76 

Syria,  Emir  Feisal  directs  national- 
istic movement  in,  15;  Moslem 
force  in,  51-55;  famine  in,  54; 
cooperative  work  planned  in,  83- 
84;  home  life  in,  99-103;  roads  in, 
104,  128;  French  schools  estab- 
lished in,  153-154;  mentioned,  198; 
France's  plan  for,  212 

Syrian  Protestant  College  of  Beirut, 
83,  158,  167 

Syrians,  the,  42-43;  persecution  of, 
51-55,  71-72;  present  harmony  be- 
tween Arabs  and,  198 


Tabriz,    14;   mission   at,   129 

Taft,  William  H.,  cited,  13 

Talaat  Pasha,  20-21.  54 

Tarsus,  St.  Paul's  College  at,  160 

Tartar  Republic,   197 

Teachers  College  at  Sivas,  160 

Teheran,  missions  at,  129 

Tobacoo,    109 

Tourists  to  Holy  Land,  strategic 
significance  of,  174-175 

Trade  of  Near  East,  early  import- 
ance of,  172 

Traveling  in  the  East,   104-106 

Trees,  sacred,  75-76 

Turkey,  control  of,  in  Arabia,  15; 
entrance  of,  into  war,  16-17;  story 
of  imprisoned  Pasha,  17;  under 
"Young  Turks,"  17;  foreign  in- 


fluences in,  21-24;  foreign  "con- 
cessions "  or  "  capitulations,"  22- 
23;  breaking  up  of,  24-25;  fer- 
tility of,  107-108;  petroleum  in, 
no;  modern  missions  in,  129; 
German  mission  schools  in,  154; 
political  importance  of,  175;  Am- 
bassador Morgenthau's  story  of, 
cited,  1 86;  political  and  racial 
problems  in,  198 

Turkish  Educational  System,  147-149 
Turkish    Empire,    former   boundaries 

of,    171 
Turkish    Government,   railroad    built 

by,   15,   105 

Turkish  Power,  collapse  of,  5-6 
Turks,    the    30-33;    persecutions    by, 
51-55.      71-72;      illiteracy     among, 
145;    opposition    of,   to   change  of 
capital,   200 
Typhus  fever,  spread  of,  181-184 

U 

University  of  St.  Joseph  in  Beirut, 
153. 

Urumia,  American  mission  in,  14, 
83;  Dr.  and  Mrs.  Grant  arrive  in, 
119;  evacuation  of,  135-136;  refu- 
gees protected  in,  186-187 


Vartanes,     Priest,     excommunication 

of,    124 

Villages,  home  life  in,  98,   100-104 
Vocational   schools,    165 

W 

Wahabis,   Mohammedan  sect  of  the, 

66 

Washburn,   Dr.  George,    159 
Water  buffalo,  94 
West    Indians    in    British    army    in 

Palestine,  4 
Wire-mesh  netting  road  over  desert, 

Wolf,  Dr.  Joseph,  no 
World  Sunday  School  Convention  in 
Jerusalem,   173-174 


X 


Xenophon,  38 


Young  Men's  Christian  Association, 

84 
"  Young  Turks,"  Turkey  under  the, 

17-21 


Zionism,  45-46 

Zwemmer,   Samuel,  quoted,    179 


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